Studio photo of artillery soldier w/shrapnel projectile.
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The Krupp "Universal shell" (known in German as UniversalminenGeschoss or Schrapnellgranate) was a type of early 20th-century artillery ammunition designed to combine the functions of both a high-explosive (HE) shell and a shrapnel shell.
This innovative shell was developed by the German armaments firm Krupp to provide field artillery with a single type of ammunition effective against a wider range of targets, specifically both shielded gun positions and exposed personnel. It contained both a main high-explosive charge (usually picric acid or TNT) and a number of small metal bullets (shrapnel balls), distributed throughout the body of the shell. The internal design was intricate, featuring internal cases and a central tube to manage the separate components and the dual-action fuze. |
The shell was equipped with a sophisticated time and percussion fuze, allowing it to detonate in several ways:
As a high-explosive shell upon direct impact (percussion).
As an airburst shrapnel shell at a pre-set time (time).This versatility meant gun crews didn't need to switch between different types of ammunition based on the immediate target.
Argentina, Chile and Bulgaria adopted the Krupp universal shell. Also Germany and Austria-Hungary for their field gun and field howitzers introduced the Krupp and Ehrhardt universal shells with only some insignificant changes. The Schneider universal shells on the contrary were not greatly appreciated.
As a high-explosive shell upon direct impact (percussion).
As an airburst shrapnel shell at a pre-set time (time).This versatility meant gun crews didn't need to switch between different types of ammunition based on the immediate target.
Argentina, Chile and Bulgaria adopted the Krupp universal shell. Also Germany and Austria-Hungary for their field gun and field howitzers introduced the Krupp and Ehrhardt universal shells with only some insignificant changes. The Schneider universal shells on the contrary were not greatly appreciated.
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Argentine Artillery from 1800s to 1900s. Link:
130mm L26 M1902 (Krupp)
130mm L26 M1902 (Krupp). Heavy siege gun; famous Argentine contract. Precursor to the German 13cm K 09.
Photo: Caras y Caretas.
The Krupp 130mm L/26 Model 1902 was a heavy siege and field gun utilized by the Argentine Army in the early 20th century. It was an advanced design for its time, notable for being one of the first heavy German-made guns to incorporate a hydrodynamic brake and recoil recuperator system.
Photo: Caras y Caretas.
The Krupp 130mm L/26 Model 1902 was a heavy siege and field gun utilized by the Argentine Army in the early 20th century. It was an advanced design for its time, notable for being one of the first heavy German-made guns to incorporate a hydrodynamic brake and recoil recuperator system.
Primarily classified as a siege and heavy fortress piece rather than a standard mobile field gun.
In the 1920s and 1930s, these heavy pieces were often transported or towed by FWD Model B 3-ton trucks and later by Argentine-made HAFDASA 6x6 artillery tractors.
The Argentine M1902 is considered a direct predecessor to the later German 13 cm Kanone 09 (K 09), which featured a longer L/35 barrel.
At least one barrel of this model is preserved today at the Museo Histórico del Ejército in Ciudadela, Buenos Aires.
In the 1920s and 1930s, these heavy pieces were often transported or towed by FWD Model B 3-ton trucks and later by Argentine-made HAFDASA 6x6 artillery tractors.
The Argentine M1902 is considered a direct predecessor to the later German 13 cm Kanone 09 (K 09), which featured a longer L/35 barrel.
At least one barrel of this model is preserved today at the Museo Histórico del Ejército in Ciudadela, Buenos Aires.
130mm Krupp, L26 M1902 siege cannon.
Photo from the book "Universal Military Service in Argentina" by George Marvin.
Argentina frequently requested non-standard calibers and features. The 130mm (approx. 5.11 inches) bore was a specific Argentine requirement; for comparison, the contemporary German equivalent was the 13.5 cm Kanone.
Technical Transition: The M1902 served as a "bridge" in Krupp's technological evolution. It was one of the first heavy guns to feature a hydrodynamic brake and recoil system, yet it retained the older Maxim-Nordenfelt breech system found on the Krupp 1895 and 1898 field guns.
Photo from the book "Universal Military Service in Argentina" by George Marvin.
Argentina frequently requested non-standard calibers and features. The 130mm (approx. 5.11 inches) bore was a specific Argentine requirement; for comparison, the contemporary German equivalent was the 13.5 cm Kanone.
Technical Transition: The M1902 served as a "bridge" in Krupp's technological evolution. It was one of the first heavy guns to feature a hydrodynamic brake and recoil system, yet it retained the older Maxim-Nordenfelt breech system found on the Krupp 1895 and 1898 field guns.
130mm Heavy Artillery, (Krupp).
Left: 130mm L/26 M1902 (Krupp). Right: 76.5mm L50 M1928 AA (Skoda). Photos: Caras y Caretas 1933.
FWD Ordenance B3 1916/17 and 130mm Krupp L/26 M1902 (1.3 cm L/26 Feld Haubitze 02. The "Gun-Howitzer" Transition: The L/22 and L/26 designs were early examples of the Gun-Howitzer. They combined the high-angle fire of a howitzer with the longer barrel and higher velocity of a gun. The Argentine Army officially designated and used the Krupp 130mm L/26 Modelo 1902 as a siege gun (cañón de sitio) or heavy gun, rather than a howitzer.
150mm 15cm L/14 M1911 Modelo Argentino Howitzer (Krupp)
The 150mm L/14 Model 1911 (Modelo Argentino) was equipped with a horizontal sliding wedge breech just like the rest of the Krupp and almost all artillery in Germany .
Argentina ordered these pieces just before the outbreak of WWI. They were specifically tailored to the Argentine Army's requirements for a "Heavy Field Howitzer" that could still navigate the challenging South American landscape.
The L/14 designation refers to the barrel length (14 times the caliber). It featured a hydro-pneumatic recoil system and a horizontal wedge breech, which were the gold standard of Krupp technology at the time.
They were extremely close relatives, (almost technically the same gun) of the sFH 13 (150mm l14 Model 1913).
The L/14 designation refers to the barrel length (14 times the caliber). It featured a hydro-pneumatic recoil system and a horizontal wedge breech, which were the gold standard of Krupp technology at the time.
They were extremely close relatives, (almost technically the same gun) of the sFH 13 (150mm l14 Model 1913).
Krupp Ammunition wagon 150mm.
Ammunition avantren.
Krupp obserbatory wagon
On the right is a caricature of the president. Many caricatures were done during the 1920s and 1930s, especially of Alvear, Justo and Ortiz. Caras y Caretas 1925.
Hydro-Pneumatic Recoil and the Fixed Shovel Brake
Neither the Model 1880 nor the original 1884 utilized a modern fixed "shovel brake" or spade; instead, they relied on a fixed trail spade and, occasionally, detachable or rope brakes to manage their significant recoil. Because these were "rigid" guns (the barrel and carriage moved as one unit), they lacked the sophisticated hydraulic or pneumatic recoil brakes found in later models like the 1909.
Before the "Quick-Firing" (QF) revolution, Krupp guns like the Model 1880/1884 were "rigid" and lacked modern spades. They used simple trail points that required the crew to manhandle the gun back into position after every shot.
After the 1897 French 75mm introduced the long-recoil system, Krupp experimented with various "shovel" designs. The German 7.7 cm FK 96 was initially rigid, but its modernized version, the 7.7 cm FK 96 n.A. (introduced around 1904), added a modern spade alongside a hydro-spring recoil system.
The Krupp 7.5 cm Model 1903 was the first "stock gun" specifically designed for export to include a fixed shovel brake on the trail as standard equipment. Because the barrel now recoiled independently via a hydro-spring mechanism, the shovel brake could firmly anchor the carriage to the ground, allowing for rapid fire without repositioning.
The Model 1909 (Argentine Version) further refined the spade design to work with its advanced hydro-pneumatic recoil system, making it one of the most stable field guns of its era.
The Argentine 75mm L/30 Krupp Model 1909 was essentially a heavily customized version of the Krupp Model 1903 and represented the "gold standard" of Krupp’s export technology at the time because it combined those two specific features to achieve true rapid fire.
Before the "Quick-Firing" (QF) revolution, Krupp guns like the Model 1880/1884 were "rigid" and lacked modern spades. They used simple trail points that required the crew to manhandle the gun back into position after every shot.
After the 1897 French 75mm introduced the long-recoil system, Krupp experimented with various "shovel" designs. The German 7.7 cm FK 96 was initially rigid, but its modernized version, the 7.7 cm FK 96 n.A. (introduced around 1904), added a modern spade alongside a hydro-spring recoil system.
The Krupp 7.5 cm Model 1903 was the first "stock gun" specifically designed for export to include a fixed shovel brake on the trail as standard equipment. Because the barrel now recoiled independently via a hydro-spring mechanism, the shovel brake could firmly anchor the carriage to the ground, allowing for rapid fire without repositioning.
The Model 1909 (Argentine Version) further refined the spade design to work with its advanced hydro-pneumatic recoil system, making it one of the most stable field guns of its era.
The Argentine 75mm L/30 Krupp Model 1909 was essentially a heavily customized version of the Krupp Model 1903 and represented the "gold standard" of Krupp’s export technology at the time because it combined those two specific features to achieve true rapid fire.
75mm L/30 Krupp Argentine Model 1909 (Feldkanone Model 1903 Export)
Krupp 75mm M1909 (Modelo Argentino). While the 1902 and 1903 were visually similar, the Model 1903 was Krupp's definitive "stock" export gun designed for rapid-fire competition. The 7.5 cm FK Modelo Argentino 1909 was a direct derivative of the Krupp Model 1903 design. The Krupp Model 1903 was the revolutionary "next step" in a lineage that began with the C/80 (Construction 1880). This export model was Krupp's desperate and necessary "answer" to the French 75mm M1897. And here the 1909 Argentino model was born, but with the modification of the Welin breech system.
The 75mm Krupp field gun Model C/80 and the Model 1909 represent two different generations of artillery technology. While they share the same caliber, the 1909 model offered a significant range advantage of approximately 1,600 to 2,000 meters over the original C/80 configuration. The 1,600 to 2,000 meter range difference between the C/80 and 1909 Krupp 75mm guns was not primarily caused by the breech system, but by barrel length and propellant technology.
Krupp 7.5 FK (Feld Kanone - Field Gun) Model 1903
While many nations adopted the Krupp 75mm export models, the German Empire famously did not use the 75mm caliber for its standard field artillery. Instead, the Imperial German Army standardized the 77mm caliber to differentiate its ammunition from the French 75mm.
The standard field guns used by the German Empire were:
7.7 cm FK 96 n.A. (neuer Art): The primary workhorse at the start of WWI. It was a modernized version of an older 1896 design, upgraded with a modern recoil system and gun shield to compete with the French 75.
7.7 cm FK 16: Introduced during the war (1916) to replace the FK 96 n.A. It featured a longer barrel for greater range, addressing the reach disadvantage Germans faced against Allied 75mm and 18-pounder guns in static trench warfare.
Germany initially offered the 7.5 cm Model 1903 and similar 75mm models purely for export. By using 77mm for their own domestic service, the German military ensured their ammunition was not interchangeable with that of their potential adversaries, while still benefiting from Krupp's manufacturing expertise.
Interestingly, many German 7.7 cm guns were later rebarreled to 75mm during the 1930s to comply with new standards.
Colonial. Krupp 7.5cm FK C03 (1903)
Technically, the German Empire did use the Krupp 7.5 cm L/30, but not as a "Standard Field Gun" for the Army. Instead, it was utilized in specialized roles where the standard 7.7 cm FK 96 wasn't practical. The most notable use of the Krupp 7.5 cm L/30 was by the Schutztruppe in Germany’s African colonies (particularly German South West Africa). Because these units operated in rugged terrain, they often used "mountain gun" configurations of the Krupp 75mm rather than the heavy 77mm field guns used in Europe.
WW2: The Wehrmacht extensively used captured Krupp 75mm Model 1903 (and its variants) during World War II. Since these were "stock" export guns used by many European neighbors, the Germans captured large quantities during their early campaigns and assigned them specific designations in the Fremdgerät (Foreign Equipment) system.
7.5 cm FK 243(h): Captured from the Netherlands. These were the Stuk van 7-veld guns, some of which the Germans later used for coastal defense or issued to second-line units in the Balkans and Greece.
7.5 cm FK 240(d): Captured from Denmark. These were the 03 L/30 models, used largely in their original configuration.
7.5 cm FK 235(b): Captured from Belgium. These were the Canon de 75 M 1905 (a licensed Krupp design).
7.5 cm FK 246(j): Captured from Yugoslavia. These were Krupp M1911 variants, which were very similar to the M1903 "stock" design.
Photo from the book "Universal Military Service in Argentina" by George Marvin
The 75mm Krupp field gun Model C/80 and the Model 1909 represent two different generations of artillery technology. While they share the same caliber, the 1909 model offered a significant range advantage of approximately 1,600 to 2,000 meters over the original C/80 configuration. The 1,600 to 2,000 meter range difference between the C/80 and 1909 Krupp 75mm guns was not primarily caused by the breech system, but by barrel length and propellant technology.
Krupp 7.5 FK (Feld Kanone - Field Gun) Model 1903
While many nations adopted the Krupp 75mm export models, the German Empire famously did not use the 75mm caliber for its standard field artillery. Instead, the Imperial German Army standardized the 77mm caliber to differentiate its ammunition from the French 75mm.
The standard field guns used by the German Empire were:
7.7 cm FK 96 n.A. (neuer Art): The primary workhorse at the start of WWI. It was a modernized version of an older 1896 design, upgraded with a modern recoil system and gun shield to compete with the French 75.
7.7 cm FK 16: Introduced during the war (1916) to replace the FK 96 n.A. It featured a longer barrel for greater range, addressing the reach disadvantage Germans faced against Allied 75mm and 18-pounder guns in static trench warfare.
Germany initially offered the 7.5 cm Model 1903 and similar 75mm models purely for export. By using 77mm for their own domestic service, the German military ensured their ammunition was not interchangeable with that of their potential adversaries, while still benefiting from Krupp's manufacturing expertise.
Interestingly, many German 7.7 cm guns were later rebarreled to 75mm during the 1930s to comply with new standards.
Colonial. Krupp 7.5cm FK C03 (1903)
Technically, the German Empire did use the Krupp 7.5 cm L/30, but not as a "Standard Field Gun" for the Army. Instead, it was utilized in specialized roles where the standard 7.7 cm FK 96 wasn't practical. The most notable use of the Krupp 7.5 cm L/30 was by the Schutztruppe in Germany’s African colonies (particularly German South West Africa). Because these units operated in rugged terrain, they often used "mountain gun" configurations of the Krupp 75mm rather than the heavy 77mm field guns used in Europe.
WW2: The Wehrmacht extensively used captured Krupp 75mm Model 1903 (and its variants) during World War II. Since these were "stock" export guns used by many European neighbors, the Germans captured large quantities during their early campaigns and assigned them specific designations in the Fremdgerät (Foreign Equipment) system.
7.5 cm FK 243(h): Captured from the Netherlands. These were the Stuk van 7-veld guns, some of which the Germans later used for coastal defense or issued to second-line units in the Balkans and Greece.
7.5 cm FK 240(d): Captured from Denmark. These were the 03 L/30 models, used largely in their original configuration.
7.5 cm FK 235(b): Captured from Belgium. These were the Canon de 75 M 1905 (a licensed Krupp design).
7.5 cm FK 246(j): Captured from Yugoslavia. These were Krupp M1911 variants, which were very similar to the M1903 "stock" design.
Photo from the book "Universal Military Service in Argentina" by George Marvin
The image shows the Krupp 75mm L/30 M1909 horse artillery gun, specifically as used by Argentine cavalry formations during the early 20th century. This model was a customized version of Krupp's "stock" export field gun, tailored to specific requirements of the Argentine Army.
A unique feature of the Argentine model was that the gun shields were designed to move backwards as the gun was elevated, providing constant protection for the crew regardless of the firing angle.
The principal differences between the Argentine Model 1909 (M1909) 75mm Krupp used by the cavalry (Horse Artillery) and the standard infantry version (Field Artillery) were focused on weight reduction and crew transport to maintain high battlefield mobility.
A unique feature of the Argentine model was that the gun shields were designed to move backwards as the gun was elevated, providing constant protection for the crew regardless of the firing angle.
The principal differences between the Argentine Model 1909 (M1909) 75mm Krupp used by the cavalry (Horse Artillery) and the standard infantry version (Field Artillery) were focused on weight reduction and crew transport to maintain high battlefield mobility.
Krupp models used by Argentina and others (like the Turkish Model 1903), were the pivotal shift in artillery technology. The transition from "rigid" carriages to those with recoil absorption systems (often called "elastic" or "quick-firing" systems).
While both originated from the same "stock gun" lineage (the Krupp Model 1903), they were from different engineering branch.
Turkey placed a major order for Krupp's standard 75mm design (M03) in 1904, with deliveries completed around 1905. These guns utilized the screw-actuated sliding breech, Krupp's standard "off-the-shelf" technology at the time.
Argentina's contract was signed in 1909 after rigorous trials. While it shared the basic carriage and recoil principles of the contemporary Krupp export family, it was designated the Modelo Argentino 1909 because of its radical customizations—most notably the Welin interrupted screw breech.
Krupp was a "global arms supermarket" that customized its "stock guns" (like the M1903) to meet specific national preferences. While the sliding block was Krupp’s signature "in-house" technology, Argentina explicitly requested the interrupted screw breech initially using Maxim-Nordenfelt designs and later the Welin system for its 75mm gun.
It was certainly a blow to Krupp’s pride, but it was also a masterpiece of "business as usual" for the Essen firm. In the early 1900s, Krupp was the world's largest arms manufacturer, and their horizontal sliding wedge was the symbol of German engineering. Having to adopt a "French-style" screw breech for a major client like Argentina was a significant concession.
It was General Pablo Ricchieri (then-Colonel) who was the driving force behind this decision. As Argentina’s Minister of War and the head of the Technical Commission on Armaments, Ricchieri was the architect of Argentina's military modernization, including the landmark Law 4.301 (Ricchieri Law).
His preference for the Welin breech (interrupted screw) over Krupp's standard sliding block was a calculated strategic choice based on his extensive experience in Europe. He studied at the Royal Military Academy of Belgium. Belgium, like France and Britain, favored screw-breech systems for heavier or specialized artillery, which influenced his technical perspective.
While both originated from the same "stock gun" lineage (the Krupp Model 1903), they were from different engineering branch.
Turkey placed a major order for Krupp's standard 75mm design (M03) in 1904, with deliveries completed around 1905. These guns utilized the screw-actuated sliding breech, Krupp's standard "off-the-shelf" technology at the time.
Argentina's contract was signed in 1909 after rigorous trials. While it shared the basic carriage and recoil principles of the contemporary Krupp export family, it was designated the Modelo Argentino 1909 because of its radical customizations—most notably the Welin interrupted screw breech.
Krupp was a "global arms supermarket" that customized its "stock guns" (like the M1903) to meet specific national preferences. While the sliding block was Krupp’s signature "in-house" technology, Argentina explicitly requested the interrupted screw breech initially using Maxim-Nordenfelt designs and later the Welin system for its 75mm gun.
It was certainly a blow to Krupp’s pride, but it was also a masterpiece of "business as usual" for the Essen firm. In the early 1900s, Krupp was the world's largest arms manufacturer, and their horizontal sliding wedge was the symbol of German engineering. Having to adopt a "French-style" screw breech for a major client like Argentina was a significant concession.
It was General Pablo Ricchieri (then-Colonel) who was the driving force behind this decision. As Argentina’s Minister of War and the head of the Technical Commission on Armaments, Ricchieri was the architect of Argentina's military modernization, including the landmark Law 4.301 (Ricchieri Law).
His preference for the Welin breech (interrupted screw) over Krupp's standard sliding block was a calculated strategic choice based on his extensive experience in Europe. He studied at the Royal Military Academy of Belgium. Belgium, like France and Britain, favored screw-breech systems for heavier or specialized artillery, which influenced his technical perspective.
The choice of breech system was often dictated by how a military preferred to load its propellant
Sliding Block (Turkish Model). This system works best with metallic cartridge cases. The brass casing itself expands upon firing to create a gas seal (obturation).
Welin Breech (Argentine Model). The interrupted screw system, specifically the Welin variant, was designed to provide superior obturation using the de Bange principle.
This allowed Argentina to use separate-loading bagged charges rather than heavy, expensive brass casings. This was particularly advantageous for mountain artillery, where reducing the weight and bulk of ammunition for mule transport was a priority.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1930.
Sliding Block (Turkish Model). This system works best with metallic cartridge cases. The brass casing itself expands upon firing to create a gas seal (obturation).
Welin Breech (Argentine Model). The interrupted screw system, specifically the Welin variant, was designed to provide superior obturation using the de Bange principle.
This allowed Argentina to use separate-loading bagged charges rather than heavy, expensive brass casings. This was particularly advantageous for mountain artillery, where reducing the weight and bulk of ammunition for mule transport was a priority.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1930.
The Welin breech was considered technically superior for high-pressure or heavy-duty use because it distributed the firing stress across much more of the barrel’s circumference than a standard single step screw. For Argentina, which conducted rigorous competitive trials before selecting Krupp, this system offered a more secure lock-up and more consistent accuracy.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the primary engineering challenge for breech-loading artillery was obturation the process of creating a perfect seal to prevent high-pressure propellant gases from escaping through the rear of the gun.
The Krupp sliding block (wedge) was effectively a massive steel door that slid into place. Because it was a metal-on-metal contact between the block and the gun's breech, it could never form an airtight seal on its own. To fix this, Krupp guns required metallic cartridge cases (usually brass). When the gun fired, the soft brass expanded under pressure against the chamber walls, acting as the seal. This meant the gun was dependent on heavy, expensive, and bulky brass casings for every shot, which was a logistical burden for mountain troops reliant on mule transport.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the primary engineering challenge for breech-loading artillery was obturation the process of creating a perfect seal to prevent high-pressure propellant gases from escaping through the rear of the gun.
The Krupp sliding block (wedge) was effectively a massive steel door that slid into place. Because it was a metal-on-metal contact between the block and the gun's breech, it could never form an airtight seal on its own. To fix this, Krupp guns required metallic cartridge cases (usually brass). When the gun fired, the soft brass expanded under pressure against the chamber walls, acting as the seal. This meant the gun was dependent on heavy, expensive, and bulky brass casings for every shot, which was a logistical burden for mountain troops reliant on mule transport.
The Welin interrupted screw (used in the Argentine Schneider and Krupp variants) provided a more "perfect" seal without needing brass casings because it used a dedicated mechanical seal.
The de Bange Obturator. These screw-breech systems were fitted with a "mushroom head" and a resilient pad (typically made of asbestos and tallow).
When the gun fired, the internal pressure forced the mushroom head back against the pad, squeezing it outward against the walls of the breech. This created a 100% gas-tight seal. Because the breech itself handled the gas seal, the army could use bagged ammunition (propellant in cloth bags). This was lighter, cheaper, and allowed for "variable charges"—gunners could simply add or remove powder bags to change the range, a critical feature for firing over mountains.
Argentina’s insistence on the Welin system for their Krupp and Schneider mountain guns allowed their artillery to be more flexible and mobile in the difficult terrain of the Andes.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1933.
The de Bange Obturator. These screw-breech systems were fitted with a "mushroom head" and a resilient pad (typically made of asbestos and tallow).
When the gun fired, the internal pressure forced the mushroom head back against the pad, squeezing it outward against the walls of the breech. This created a 100% gas-tight seal. Because the breech itself handled the gas seal, the army could use bagged ammunition (propellant in cloth bags). This was lighter, cheaper, and allowed for "variable charges"—gunners could simply add or remove powder bags to change the range, a critical feature for firing over mountains.
Argentina’s insistence on the Welin system for their Krupp and Schneider mountain guns allowed their artillery to be more flexible and mobile in the difficult terrain of the Andes.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1933.
75mm L30 M1909 Krupp
Both Argentina (75mm L30 M1909) and Turkey or Ottoman Empire (75mm L/30 M1903 and M1909) were major clients of the Krupp 75mm L/30 family, though they utilized different specific variants tailored to their national requirements. While both nations used a 75mm L/30 Krupp platform, Argentina’s 1909 model was unique for its interrupted screw breech, whereas Turkey’s 1909 model used a standard sliding block breech common to other export variants.
Krupp's Crucible Steel (Tiegelstahl)
In the 1880s, the "Artillery Revolution" was won by Krupp primarily because of their mastery of Crucible Steel (Tiegelstahl). While other nations were still transitioning from older materials, Krupp had already perfected a consistent, high-strength industrial process.
Krupp’s massive advantage was his ability to cast enormous ingots of Crucible Steel.By melting small quantities of high-quality puddled steel in hundreds of individual crucibles and pouring them simultaneously into a single mold, Krupp achieved a steel that was incredibly uniform and free of the slag/impurities found in early Bessemer or Open-Hearth steels.
This allowed Krupp to build thinner, lighter barrels that could handle significantly higher internal pressures than any competitor. The C/80 (Construction 1880) was the pinnacle of this "Mono-block" or "Built-up" steel construction.
De Bange (France)
Colonel de Bange’s designs were brilliant in terms of the breech seal (the obturator), but French metallurgy in the 1880s was slightly behind Krupp’s industrial scale.
Steel vs. Iron. While the French were moving toward steel, many of their heavy guns still utilized Puddled Steel or even Cast Iron with steel hoops (Frettage).
French steel was often "brittle" compared to Krupp's. They had to make their barrels thicker and heavier to achieve the same safety margins as a Krupp gun.
Schneider & Co. (Le Creusot)
Schneider was Krupp’s only true rival in steel quality. They used the Open-Hearth (Siemens-Martin) process and pioneered Nickel-Steel alloys. While Krupp’s Crucible steel was arguably "purer," Schneider’s alloys were eventually tougher. However, in the 1880s, Krupp's reputation for reliability was so dominant that Schneider was still struggling to break into the export markets (like Argentina) that Krupp already controlled.
Krupp’s massive advantage was his ability to cast enormous ingots of Crucible Steel.By melting small quantities of high-quality puddled steel in hundreds of individual crucibles and pouring them simultaneously into a single mold, Krupp achieved a steel that was incredibly uniform and free of the slag/impurities found in early Bessemer or Open-Hearth steels.
This allowed Krupp to build thinner, lighter barrels that could handle significantly higher internal pressures than any competitor. The C/80 (Construction 1880) was the pinnacle of this "Mono-block" or "Built-up" steel construction.
De Bange (France)
Colonel de Bange’s designs were brilliant in terms of the breech seal (the obturator), but French metallurgy in the 1880s was slightly behind Krupp’s industrial scale.
Steel vs. Iron. While the French were moving toward steel, many of their heavy guns still utilized Puddled Steel or even Cast Iron with steel hoops (Frettage).
French steel was often "brittle" compared to Krupp's. They had to make their barrels thicker and heavier to achieve the same safety margins as a Krupp gun.
Schneider & Co. (Le Creusot)
Schneider was Krupp’s only true rival in steel quality. They used the Open-Hearth (Siemens-Martin) process and pioneered Nickel-Steel alloys. While Krupp’s Crucible steel was arguably "purer," Schneider’s alloys were eventually tougher. However, in the 1880s, Krupp's reputation for reliability was so dominant that Schneider was still struggling to break into the export markets (like Argentina) that Krupp already controlled.
Krupp and De Bange is a classic military text by Major Émile Monthaye (1855–1912), first published in English in 1888. The book provides a detailed technical comparison of the two dominant artillery systems of the late 19th century: the German Krupp system and the French de Bange system.
In my library, I have an original 1888 first edition published by Thomas Prosser & Son in New York. At the time, Prosser was the exclusive American agent for Krupp, so they published this book specifically to convince the U.S. military to buy German steel instead of French designs.
US Field Artillery
In the late 1880s, the United States was largely committed to the de Bange breech system for its modern rifled artillery, a choice that placed it in the "French school" of ordnance design rather than the German Krupp school.
The U.S. adoption of the de Bange system was a pivotal moment in its military modernization
The U.S. military favored the interrupted screw breech with the de Bange "mushroom" obturator (the resilient gas-sealing pad) because it effectively sealed the breech without needing a metal cartridge case.
Philippine-America War
The 3.2-inch Gun (M1885.M1897). This was the U.S. Army's first modern, steel, breech-loading field gun. It utilized the de Bange system and served as the primary field piece during the Spanish-American War and the Philippine-American War.
Spanish American War 1898
While the United States won the war, the Spanish Army's Krupp artillery was technically and ballistically superior to the American guns in almost every land engagement. Smokeless Powder vs. Black Powder. This was the most decisive factor.
Spanish Krupps
Their Krupp 7.5 cm and 8 cm guns used modern smokeless powder. They could fire at the Americans without giving away their position. Most U.S. volunteer batteries were still using old black powder. Every time an American gun fired, a massive white cloud of smoke appeared, acting as a "target here" sign for Spanish gunners.
Spain used the 7.5 cm Modelo 1896 (a refined C/80 descendant). These guns were lighter, faster to load with the horizontal sliding block, and had a higher muzzle velocity.
American Guns
The U.S. was using the 3.2-inch (81mm) M1885/1897. While it used the De Bange screw breech, the American steel was often inferior to Krupp's crucible steel, and the guns were significantly heavier and slower to operate.
The Battle of San Juan Hill
During the famous charge in Cuba, the Spanish Krupp batteries at the heights inflicted heavy casualties.
The American artillery was so outclassed and suppressed by the Spanish Krupps that the U.S. infantry had to rely on Gatling guns (machine guns) for suppressive fire because their own cannons couldn't survive the "counter-battery" fire from the Spanish.
The Spanish gunners were better trained in the "Krupp School" of indirect fire, while the Americans were still using "Direct Fire" (aiming through the barrel) like it was the Civil War.
The "U.S. Panic" of 1899
After the war, the U.S. military realized they were dangerously behind.
They immediately began searching for a Quick-Firing (QF) gun to match the new Krupp and French designs.This eventually led the U.S. to abandon the "old" De Bange field guns and adopt the M1902 3-inch Field Gun, which copied many of the recoil and breech features seen in the Krupp exports stuff..
While the U.S. was struggling with its 3.2-inch "smoke-makers" in 1898, Argentina was already buying the high-tech Krupp 7.5 cm guns. For a brief moment around 1900, the Argentine Army actually possessed more modern field artillery than the United States Army.
The 1888 Monthaye book you hold was warning the Americans about exactly what happened in Cuba ten years later.
In my library, I have an original 1888 first edition published by Thomas Prosser & Son in New York. At the time, Prosser was the exclusive American agent for Krupp, so they published this book specifically to convince the U.S. military to buy German steel instead of French designs.
US Field Artillery
In the late 1880s, the United States was largely committed to the de Bange breech system for its modern rifled artillery, a choice that placed it in the "French school" of ordnance design rather than the German Krupp school.
The U.S. adoption of the de Bange system was a pivotal moment in its military modernization
The U.S. military favored the interrupted screw breech with the de Bange "mushroom" obturator (the resilient gas-sealing pad) because it effectively sealed the breech without needing a metal cartridge case.
Philippine-America War
The 3.2-inch Gun (M1885.M1897). This was the U.S. Army's first modern, steel, breech-loading field gun. It utilized the de Bange system and served as the primary field piece during the Spanish-American War and the Philippine-American War.
Spanish American War 1898
While the United States won the war, the Spanish Army's Krupp artillery was technically and ballistically superior to the American guns in almost every land engagement. Smokeless Powder vs. Black Powder. This was the most decisive factor.
Spanish Krupps
Their Krupp 7.5 cm and 8 cm guns used modern smokeless powder. They could fire at the Americans without giving away their position. Most U.S. volunteer batteries were still using old black powder. Every time an American gun fired, a massive white cloud of smoke appeared, acting as a "target here" sign for Spanish gunners.
Spain used the 7.5 cm Modelo 1896 (a refined C/80 descendant). These guns were lighter, faster to load with the horizontal sliding block, and had a higher muzzle velocity.
American Guns
The U.S. was using the 3.2-inch (81mm) M1885/1897. While it used the De Bange screw breech, the American steel was often inferior to Krupp's crucible steel, and the guns were significantly heavier and slower to operate.
The Battle of San Juan Hill
During the famous charge in Cuba, the Spanish Krupp batteries at the heights inflicted heavy casualties.
The American artillery was so outclassed and suppressed by the Spanish Krupps that the U.S. infantry had to rely on Gatling guns (machine guns) for suppressive fire because their own cannons couldn't survive the "counter-battery" fire from the Spanish.
The Spanish gunners were better trained in the "Krupp School" of indirect fire, while the Americans were still using "Direct Fire" (aiming through the barrel) like it was the Civil War.
The "U.S. Panic" of 1899
After the war, the U.S. military realized they were dangerously behind.
They immediately began searching for a Quick-Firing (QF) gun to match the new Krupp and French designs.This eventually led the U.S. to abandon the "old" De Bange field guns and adopt the M1902 3-inch Field Gun, which copied many of the recoil and breech features seen in the Krupp exports stuff..
While the U.S. was struggling with its 3.2-inch "smoke-makers" in 1898, Argentina was already buying the high-tech Krupp 7.5 cm guns. For a brief moment around 1900, the Argentine Army actually possessed more modern field artillery than the United States Army.
The 1888 Monthaye book you hold was warning the Americans about exactly what happened in Cuba ten years later.
Ricchieri and "The Steel Alliance"
General Pablo Ricchieri was the primary architect of the "Steel Alliance" between Argentina and the German industrial giant Krupp. This partnership provided the heavy "hardware" necessary to transform the Argentine Army into the most modern force in South America at the turn of the 20th century.
While the Mauser handled the infantry, Ricchieri knew that a modern "machine" required superior artillery. He pushed for the adoption of Krupp 75mm mountain and field guns.
The 1909 Model: The Krupp 75mm Model 1909 became the standard of the Argentine artillery. It was a rapid-fire, recoiling gun that outclassed the older, rigid-carriage cannons of the 19th century.
The Chilean Competition. This modernization was fueled by the "Arms Race" with Chile. Ricchieri used the Krupp contracts to ensure Argentina maintained a technical advantage in the Andean border disputes.
The "Prussianization" of the Force. The choice of Krupp was not merely about the guns; it was an ideological statement. By buying German, Ricchieri was installing Prussian "software" into the Argentine military:
The Krupp contracts often came with German technical advisors and training missions. This influenced everything from Argentine military doctrine to the design of uniforms and barracks.
The maintenance and operation of Krupp artillery required a level of mathematical precision and logistical organization that finished off the last remnants of the "gaucho" military tradition. Ricchieri’s relationship with Krupp set the historical precedent that General Eduardo Alberto Uriburu would later expand upon in his Plan Europa.
Ricchieri insisted that the German technicians help set up local maintenance and repair shops, which were the early "gears" of what became Fabricaciones Militares.
Although he loved German tech, Ricchieri began the practice of playing European powers against each other to get better prices and technology a tactic Perón would later master.
While the Mauser handled the infantry, Ricchieri knew that a modern "machine" required superior artillery. He pushed for the adoption of Krupp 75mm mountain and field guns.
The 1909 Model: The Krupp 75mm Model 1909 became the standard of the Argentine artillery. It was a rapid-fire, recoiling gun that outclassed the older, rigid-carriage cannons of the 19th century.
The Chilean Competition. This modernization was fueled by the "Arms Race" with Chile. Ricchieri used the Krupp contracts to ensure Argentina maintained a technical advantage in the Andean border disputes.
The "Prussianization" of the Force. The choice of Krupp was not merely about the guns; it was an ideological statement. By buying German, Ricchieri was installing Prussian "software" into the Argentine military:
The Krupp contracts often came with German technical advisors and training missions. This influenced everything from Argentine military doctrine to the design of uniforms and barracks.
The maintenance and operation of Krupp artillery required a level of mathematical precision and logistical organization that finished off the last remnants of the "gaucho" military tradition. Ricchieri’s relationship with Krupp set the historical precedent that General Eduardo Alberto Uriburu would later expand upon in his Plan Europa.
Ricchieri insisted that the German technicians help set up local maintenance and repair shops, which were the early "gears" of what became Fabricaciones Militares.
Although he loved German tech, Ricchieri began the practice of playing European powers against each other to get better prices and technology a tactic Perón would later master.
The Argentine Krupp 75mm L/30 Model 1909 was specifically characterized by its exclusive use of the Welin-type interrupted screw breech.
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75mm Model L30,10 Krupp (1909): http://www.cannonsuperstore.com/sold_german.htm
The Krupp 75mm Model 1909 (often referred to as the Krupp 75mm L/30 Modelo Argentino 1909) was a definitive piece of "hardware" in the professionalization of the Argentine Army. It shared the same "1909" designation as the famous Argentine Mauser rifle.
The Krupp 1909 was a distinct, high-tech machine of its time, specifically tailored for the Argentine military's needs.
(The Breech System). Unlike standard Krupp models sold to other nations, the Argentine 1909 model was customized.
The Welin Breech. Most Krupp export models used a sliding wedge breech. Argentina, however, insisted on an interrupted screw breech (similar to the Welin system) after rigorous evaluation trials. This made the Argentine version technically distinct from the "off-the-shelf" models sold to neighbors, giving the Argentine "machine" a unique mechanical signature.
Technical Specifications
Caliber: 75 mm.
Recoil: It featured a hydraulic buffer and springs (recoil mechanism), allowing the gun to stay in place after firing rather than jumping backward.
Range: It had a maximum range of approximately 6,600 meters in its horse artillery configuration.
Weight: It weighed roughly 1,000 kg in firing position.
The 1909 Krupp was integrated into Ricchieri’s new institutional framework:
It was primary equipment for the Five Regiments of Mounted Artillery.
Mauser Synergy. The Mauser 1909 rifle and the Krupp 1909 cannon arrived as a unified "German package," standardizing the army’s caliber and training across the board.
Later Evolution (Bofors and the "Nahuel")
Modernization. In the 1920s and 30s, these guns were modernized by Bofors (a Swedish company under Krupp influence), adding new carriages and equilibrators.
The "Nahuel" Tank. During WWII, when Argentina faced an arms embargo*, they stripped the 75mm guns from the old 1909 Krupp field pieces and mounted them in the rotating turrets of the Nahuel DL 43, Argentina's first domestically produced medium tank.
*Argentina could not import modern tank guns, so they took the 1909 field guns out of their horse-drawn carriages and modified them to fit into the Nahuel's rotating turret.
Crusader Conversions and the Bofors 75mm: Post-war, the Argentine Army purchased surplus British Crusader gun tractors and converted them into self-propelled guns. One of the most famous variants was fitted with the 75mm Swedish Bofors Model 1935 (and sometimes the 1934 mountain gun).
Other Crusader Variants: The Crusader chassis was a versatile "machine" for Argentina; it was also fitted with the 105mm Schneider Model 1928 howitzers.
The Krupp 1909 was a distinct, high-tech machine of its time, specifically tailored for the Argentine military's needs.
(The Breech System). Unlike standard Krupp models sold to other nations, the Argentine 1909 model was customized.
The Welin Breech. Most Krupp export models used a sliding wedge breech. Argentina, however, insisted on an interrupted screw breech (similar to the Welin system) after rigorous evaluation trials. This made the Argentine version technically distinct from the "off-the-shelf" models sold to neighbors, giving the Argentine "machine" a unique mechanical signature.
Technical Specifications
Caliber: 75 mm.
Recoil: It featured a hydraulic buffer and springs (recoil mechanism), allowing the gun to stay in place after firing rather than jumping backward.
Range: It had a maximum range of approximately 6,600 meters in its horse artillery configuration.
Weight: It weighed roughly 1,000 kg in firing position.
The 1909 Krupp was integrated into Ricchieri’s new institutional framework:
It was primary equipment for the Five Regiments of Mounted Artillery.
Mauser Synergy. The Mauser 1909 rifle and the Krupp 1909 cannon arrived as a unified "German package," standardizing the army’s caliber and training across the board.
Later Evolution (Bofors and the "Nahuel")
Modernization. In the 1920s and 30s, these guns were modernized by Bofors (a Swedish company under Krupp influence), adding new carriages and equilibrators.
The "Nahuel" Tank. During WWII, when Argentina faced an arms embargo*, they stripped the 75mm guns from the old 1909 Krupp field pieces and mounted them in the rotating turrets of the Nahuel DL 43, Argentina's first domestically produced medium tank.
*Argentina could not import modern tank guns, so they took the 1909 field guns out of their horse-drawn carriages and modified them to fit into the Nahuel's rotating turret.
Crusader Conversions and the Bofors 75mm: Post-war, the Argentine Army purchased surplus British Crusader gun tractors and converted them into self-propelled guns. One of the most famous variants was fitted with the 75mm Swedish Bofors Model 1935 (and sometimes the 1934 mountain gun).
Other Crusader Variants: The Crusader chassis was a versatile "machine" for Argentina; it was also fitted with the 105mm Schneider Model 1928 howitzers.
From the Franco-Prussian War to the Versailles
The annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871 wasn't just about national pride; it was the ultimate strategic resource grab.
While the coal was essential, there was a second mineral in that region that was perhaps even more important for the Krupp steel you are researching: Iron Ore.
The "Minette" Iron Ore. The Lorraine region contained one of the largest iron ore deposits in Europe, known as Minette ore.
This ore was high in phosphorus, which made steel brittle and "cold-short" (it would snap under pressure) using early methods.
In 1878, the Thomas-Gilchrist process (Basic Bessemer) was invented, which used a limestone lining to remove the phosphorus. Suddenly, the "worthless" high-phosphorus iron of Lorraine became the perfect raw material for mass-producing steel. Germany’s steel production skyrocketed, overtaking Britain by the 1890s.
To make the high-quality Crucible Steel Krupp was famous for, you needed immense heat. The coal from the Saar (near Alsace-Lorraine) and the Ruhr valley provided the high-grade coking coal needed for the blast furnaces. By controlling both the ore (Lorraine) and the coal (Saar/Ruhr), the German Empire created a closed-loop industrial system. They didn't have to import anything to build their army.
Alfred Krupp used this massive influx of domestic German iron and coal to scale his Essen works into the largest factory on earth.Because the German Empire had secured these territories, Krupp had a guaranteed, cheap supply of raw materials.
This allowed him to lower his prices for the "Export" market. When Argentina or Turkey bought a 7.5 cm gun, they were essentially buying "Germanized" Lorraine iron processed with Ruhr coal.
Beyond the minerals, the "sovereignty" provided the geographic shield. By holding the Vosges Mountains in Alsace and the fortifications of Metz in Lorraine, Germany ensured that the French could not easily strike at the industrial heart of the Rhineland, where the Krupp factories were located.
The fate of Alsace-Lorraine and the German steel industry after the world wars is one of the most significant "reversals of fortune" in industrial history. The transition from war-making to European integration was fueled by exactly the coal and iron.
The Treaty of Versailles returned Alsace-Lorraine to France, which was a catastrophic blow to the German Empire's industrial "closed-loop" system.
Germany lost 80% of its iron ore (the Lorraine "Minette" fields) and a significant portion of its high-grade coal.
Krupp’s factories in Essen were now cut off from their primary domestic ore supply. Furthermore, the Treaty banned Krupp from manufacturing heavy artillery.
To survive, Krupp shifted to "peaceful" steel (locomotives, agricultural machinery, and stainless steel). To keep their artillery knowledge alive, they secretly moved their R&D to Bofors in Sweden and HIH in the Netherlands. This is how the "Krupp 75mm" lineage survived into the 1930s despite the ban.
When Germany fell behind on reparations, France occupied the Ruhr Valley (the heart of German coal) to physically take the resources. This nearly collapsed the German economy.
While the coal was essential, there was a second mineral in that region that was perhaps even more important for the Krupp steel you are researching: Iron Ore.
The "Minette" Iron Ore. The Lorraine region contained one of the largest iron ore deposits in Europe, known as Minette ore.
This ore was high in phosphorus, which made steel brittle and "cold-short" (it would snap under pressure) using early methods.
In 1878, the Thomas-Gilchrist process (Basic Bessemer) was invented, which used a limestone lining to remove the phosphorus. Suddenly, the "worthless" high-phosphorus iron of Lorraine became the perfect raw material for mass-producing steel. Germany’s steel production skyrocketed, overtaking Britain by the 1890s.
To make the high-quality Crucible Steel Krupp was famous for, you needed immense heat. The coal from the Saar (near Alsace-Lorraine) and the Ruhr valley provided the high-grade coking coal needed for the blast furnaces. By controlling both the ore (Lorraine) and the coal (Saar/Ruhr), the German Empire created a closed-loop industrial system. They didn't have to import anything to build their army.
Alfred Krupp used this massive influx of domestic German iron and coal to scale his Essen works into the largest factory on earth.Because the German Empire had secured these territories, Krupp had a guaranteed, cheap supply of raw materials.
This allowed him to lower his prices for the "Export" market. When Argentina or Turkey bought a 7.5 cm gun, they were essentially buying "Germanized" Lorraine iron processed with Ruhr coal.
Beyond the minerals, the "sovereignty" provided the geographic shield. By holding the Vosges Mountains in Alsace and the fortifications of Metz in Lorraine, Germany ensured that the French could not easily strike at the industrial heart of the Rhineland, where the Krupp factories were located.
The fate of Alsace-Lorraine and the German steel industry after the world wars is one of the most significant "reversals of fortune" in industrial history. The transition from war-making to European integration was fueled by exactly the coal and iron.
The Treaty of Versailles returned Alsace-Lorraine to France, which was a catastrophic blow to the German Empire's industrial "closed-loop" system.
Germany lost 80% of its iron ore (the Lorraine "Minette" fields) and a significant portion of its high-grade coal.
Krupp’s factories in Essen were now cut off from their primary domestic ore supply. Furthermore, the Treaty banned Krupp from manufacturing heavy artillery.
To survive, Krupp shifted to "peaceful" steel (locomotives, agricultural machinery, and stainless steel). To keep their artillery knowledge alive, they secretly moved their R&D to Bofors in Sweden and HIH in the Netherlands. This is how the "Krupp 75mm" lineage survived into the 1930s despite the ban.
When Germany fell behind on reparations, France occupied the Ruhr Valley (the heart of German coal) to physically take the resources. This nearly collapsed the German economy.
Krupp-Bofors and the Versailles
Krupp owned a significant portion of Bofors (approximately 31.8%) through a Swedish subsidiary, which allowed them to share designs and personnel freely.
Argentina was a long-time Krupp client. When Krupp could no longer sell directly, Bofors took over those commercial contacts to ensure Argentina stayed within the "Krupp ecosystem".
Bofors technicians often Krupp staff working under Swedish cover modernized Argentina's existing Krupp Model 1909 guns. They added modern features like equilibrators and split-trail carriages to bring old German barrels up to 1930s standards.
While the 1920s saw Argentina purchase French Schneider guns (like the Model 1928) due to the temporary lack of German options, the Krupp-Bofors collaboration eventually regained dominance.
By the mid-1930s, Bofors became almost the sole provider for the Argentine Army, Navy, and Air Force.
This partnership resulted in the purchase of the Bofors 75mm L/40 Model 1935 (a direct evolution of Krupp design) and the famous 40mm L/60 anti-aircraft guns.
The Krupp-Bofors partnership was the artillery equivalent of the Nedinsco-Zeiss "shadow" operation. Both were sophisticated shell companies designed to keep German military technology alive and profitable during the Versailles era.
Argentina was a long-time Krupp client. When Krupp could no longer sell directly, Bofors took over those commercial contacts to ensure Argentina stayed within the "Krupp ecosystem".
Bofors technicians often Krupp staff working under Swedish cover modernized Argentina's existing Krupp Model 1909 guns. They added modern features like equilibrators and split-trail carriages to bring old German barrels up to 1930s standards.
While the 1920s saw Argentina purchase French Schneider guns (like the Model 1928) due to the temporary lack of German options, the Krupp-Bofors collaboration eventually regained dominance.
By the mid-1930s, Bofors became almost the sole provider for the Argentine Army, Navy, and Air Force.
This partnership resulted in the purchase of the Bofors 75mm L/40 Model 1935 (a direct evolution of Krupp design) and the famous 40mm L/60 anti-aircraft guns.
The Krupp-Bofors partnership was the artillery equivalent of the Nedinsco-Zeiss "shadow" operation. Both were sophisticated shell companies designed to keep German military technology alive and profitable during the Versailles era.
1982 creates a modern dilemma that the 1928 didn't have.
Strategic autonomy (the desire to be independent) and tactical reality (the quality of the steel).
From the perspective of the Argentine military leadership, the Treaty of Versailles wasn't just a European peace agreement; it was a geopolitical trap that threatened their strategic sovereignty. For a professionalized army that viewed itself as the "Prussians of the South," the shift away from German technology felt like a forced alignment with the victors of WWI.
Just as the Argentine military used Schneider and Bofors to "escape" the Versailles imposed dominance of the UK and US, modern South American nations use Russian or Chinese hardware to break today’s Western monopolies.
When Argentina bought Krupp or Schneider, they were buying the "Gold Standard" of the era. Today, a country turning to non-Western sources often faces a "Quality Gap" that didn't exist for the Argentine officers of 1928.
The German/French Standard. In 1928, a 155mm Schneider or a Krupp 75mm was a masterpiece of metallurgy. They were over-engineered to last decades (many are still used for ceremonial purposes today).
During the Cold War, the Soviet model prioritized quantity and "disposability." Tanks like the T-55 or T-72 were designed for a high-intensity European war where their life expectancy was measured in days. For a South American country with a limited budget, buying "disposable" tech often led to a maintenance nightmare.
The Record of Defeat - The asymmetric "People's Wars" (Vietnam/Korea), Soviet-style conventional doctrine and hardware often fared poorly when facing Western technology:
Meanwhile in the Middle East - In the Six-Day War and the Bekaa Valley, Western-equipped forces decimated Soviet-equipped armies.
Operation Desert Storm - This was the ultimate "reality check" for many South American observers, seeing T-72s and Soviet AA systems easily neutralized.
South Atlantic War 1982: The "Plan Europa" was the ultimate expression of the Argentine military's drive for strategic independence, looked for technology from countries like France, Germany, and Switzerland. However, while the weapons themselves were modern and "fearsome," they were not truly independent of the geopolitical alliances of their makers.
From the perspective of the Argentine military leadership, the Treaty of Versailles wasn't just a European peace agreement; it was a geopolitical trap that threatened their strategic sovereignty. For a professionalized army that viewed itself as the "Prussians of the South," the shift away from German technology felt like a forced alignment with the victors of WWI.
Just as the Argentine military used Schneider and Bofors to "escape" the Versailles imposed dominance of the UK and US, modern South American nations use Russian or Chinese hardware to break today’s Western monopolies.
When Argentina bought Krupp or Schneider, they were buying the "Gold Standard" of the era. Today, a country turning to non-Western sources often faces a "Quality Gap" that didn't exist for the Argentine officers of 1928.
The German/French Standard. In 1928, a 155mm Schneider or a Krupp 75mm was a masterpiece of metallurgy. They were over-engineered to last decades (many are still used for ceremonial purposes today).
During the Cold War, the Soviet model prioritized quantity and "disposability." Tanks like the T-55 or T-72 were designed for a high-intensity European war where their life expectancy was measured in days. For a South American country with a limited budget, buying "disposable" tech often led to a maintenance nightmare.
The Record of Defeat - The asymmetric "People's Wars" (Vietnam/Korea), Soviet-style conventional doctrine and hardware often fared poorly when facing Western technology:
Meanwhile in the Middle East - In the Six-Day War and the Bekaa Valley, Western-equipped forces decimated Soviet-equipped armies.
Operation Desert Storm - This was the ultimate "reality check" for many South American observers, seeing T-72s and Soviet AA systems easily neutralized.
South Atlantic War 1982: The "Plan Europa" was the ultimate expression of the Argentine military's drive for strategic independence, looked for technology from countries like France, Germany, and Switzerland. However, while the weapons themselves were modern and "fearsome," they were not truly independent of the geopolitical alliances of their makers.
WWII Era:
.105mm L12,4 M1928 Howitzer Montagne/Field Gun (Schneider).
105mm L17.8 M1928 Field Gun (Schneider).
105mm L18.6 M1928 Howitzer (Schneider).
105mm L30 M1928 (Schneider).
155mm L15 M1928 Howitzer (Schneider).
75mm L12,4 M1928 Montagne (Shneider).
75mm L18 M1928 Montagne (Schneider).
220mm L10,8 Mortar (Schneider)
155mm L30,8 M1928 (Schneider).
75mm L40 M1935 (Bofors).
Modelo 1928 (M28) designation in Argentina refers to a suite of Schneider artillery pieces acquired during a major modernization effort in the late 1920s. These weapons were distinct from their WWI-era predecessors because they featured split-trail carriages and, in many cases, modernized wheels for motorized traction.
The specific artillery pieces designated as Modelo 1928 (or the closely related Modelo 1929) include:
155mm Heavy Artillery
155mm L15.05 Model 1928. A short-barreled heavy howitzer (approx. 15 caliber).
155mm L30.05 Model 1928. A long-barreled variant. Some sources also refer to a Cañón 155mm L30.8 Modelo 1929, which was the same basic heavy field gun design
Field & Mountain Artillery
105mm Gun L30.8 Model 1928. A long-range field gun designed for motorized transport.
105mm Howitzer L17.8 model 1928. A light field howitzer used for general divisional support.
105mm Cavalry Gun L12.4 Model 1928. A shorter, lighter variant intended for use by cavalry units.
105mm Mountain Gun L12,4 Model 1928: A pack-howitzer variant designed to be broken down for mountain transport.
Light Artillery
75mm Mountain Gun L18.6 Model 1928.A lightweight mountain gun that could be dismantled for transport by mules.
75mm Howitzer L12.4 Model 1928.A short-barreled light mountain or infantry support.
Siege Artilley
Schneider 220mm Howitzer Model 1928.
105mm L17.8 M1928 Field Gun (Schneider).
105mm L18.6 M1928 Howitzer (Schneider).
105mm L30 M1928 (Schneider).
155mm L15 M1928 Howitzer (Schneider).
75mm L12,4 M1928 Montagne (Shneider).
75mm L18 M1928 Montagne (Schneider).
220mm L10,8 Mortar (Schneider)
155mm L30,8 M1928 (Schneider).
75mm L40 M1935 (Bofors).
Modelo 1928 (M28) designation in Argentina refers to a suite of Schneider artillery pieces acquired during a major modernization effort in the late 1920s. These weapons were distinct from their WWI-era predecessors because they featured split-trail carriages and, in many cases, modernized wheels for motorized traction.
The specific artillery pieces designated as Modelo 1928 (or the closely related Modelo 1929) include:
155mm Heavy Artillery
155mm L15.05 Model 1928. A short-barreled heavy howitzer (approx. 15 caliber).
155mm L30.05 Model 1928. A long-barreled variant. Some sources also refer to a Cañón 155mm L30.8 Modelo 1929, which was the same basic heavy field gun design
Field & Mountain Artillery
105mm Gun L30.8 Model 1928. A long-range field gun designed for motorized transport.
105mm Howitzer L17.8 model 1928. A light field howitzer used for general divisional support.
105mm Cavalry Gun L12.4 Model 1928. A shorter, lighter variant intended for use by cavalry units.
105mm Mountain Gun L12,4 Model 1928: A pack-howitzer variant designed to be broken down for mountain transport.
Light Artillery
75mm Mountain Gun L18.6 Model 1928.A lightweight mountain gun that could be dismantled for transport by mules.
75mm Howitzer L12.4 Model 1928.A short-barreled light mountain or infantry support.
Siege Artilley
Schneider 220mm Howitzer Model 1928.
The Schneiders 220mm Mle 1915/1916s at the Le Havre factory. Photo: Wikipedia.
While the primary manufacturing location for the Schneider 220mm howitzer was the Le Creusot factory, some units of the howitzer were physically assembled or located at the Le Havre factory.
These 220mm Model 1928 were the same 220mm L10.6 Model 1915 or 16 which was subsequently fitted with a muzzle brake as part of the 1928 upgrade program. One of the main features is the muzzle brake (often referred to as a flame arrester in non-technical contexts).
While the primary manufacturing location for the Schneider 220mm howitzer was the Le Creusot factory, some units of the howitzer were physically assembled or located at the Le Havre factory.
These 220mm Model 1928 were the same 220mm L10.6 Model 1915 or 16 which was subsequently fitted with a muzzle brake as part of the 1928 upgrade program. One of the main features is the muzzle brake (often referred to as a flame arrester in non-technical contexts).
Here the 75mm L18.6 Model 1928 Schneider (French mle 1919) Mountain or Infantry Gun.
The 75mm L18.6 Model 1928 Schneider was part of the broader lineage of French 75mm artillery, but it was specifically a mountain gun rather than a direct derivative of the "famous" Model 1897 field gun. While they are distinct designs, they shared the same ammunition and some technical heritage.
The 75mm L18.6 Model 1928 Schneider was part of the broader lineage of French 75mm artillery, but it was specifically a mountain gun rather than a direct derivative of the "famous" Model 1897 field gun. While they are distinct designs, they shared the same ammunition and some technical heritage.
Schneider 155mm "C" L15 Model 1928. "C" is for "Court - Short".
Both the Schneider 155mm L/15 Modelo Argentino 1928 and the French Mle 1919 were modernized evolutions of the original Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider. While both were based on the famous Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider design, they represented different evolutionary branches of that weapon.
The 155mm Schneider Model 1928 was a modernized design that utilized a common carriage for two distinct roles by offering interchangeable barrels of different lengths. This versatility allowed the same weapon system to function as either a howitzer or a long-range gun.
Obús Schneider L 15.05: The short-barreled version (15 calibers long), which functioned as a heavy field howitzer.
Obús Schneider L 30.05: The long-barreled version (30 calibers long), designed for greater range and higher muzzle velocity.
This "two-in-one" concept was a refinement of Schneider's earlier World War I designs, where they frequently adapted the same heavy carriage to mount different tubes, such as the 155mm short howitzer (C mle 1917) and the 155mm long gun (L mle 1917). The Model 1928 further modernized this with features like a split-trail carriage for improved stability and traverse.
Obús Schneider L 15.05: The short-barreled version (15 calibers long), which functioned as a heavy field howitzer.
Obús Schneider L 30.05: The long-barreled version (30 calibers long), designed for greater range and higher muzzle velocity.
This "two-in-one" concept was a refinement of Schneider's earlier World War I designs, where they frequently adapted the same heavy carriage to mount different tubes, such as the 155mm short howitzer (C mle 1917) and the 155mm long gun (L mle 1917). The Model 1928 further modernized this with features like a split-trail carriage for improved stability and traverse.
The Schneider 155mm L/15 Model 1928 was a customized variant of the 155 L/15 C modèle 1917 Schneider ((the "C" standing for court, or short), specifically manufactured for Argentina by Schneider et Cie. Its defining characteristic was a split-trail carriage, which allowed for a much wider horizontal traverse and better stability than the traditional box-trail used on the standard Mle 1917 and Mle 1919.
In the Argentine Army, the 155mm L.15.05 Modelo 1928 Schneider howitzer effectively succeeded the earlier 150mm L/14 Krupp as a primary heavy artillery piece.
In the Argentine Army, the 155mm L.15.05 Modelo 1928 Schneider howitzer effectively succeeded the earlier 150mm L/14 Krupp as a primary heavy artillery piece.
Photo: Artillery Major Domingo Mercante. This officer was a prominent officer in the Mountain Division, which included the specialized mountain artillery units
Colonel Domingo Alfredo Mercante (1898–1976) was a career military officer and a founding figure of Peronism, often described as the "heart of Perón" for his essential role in the movement's early success.
He entered the National Military College in 1914 and graduated in 1919 and was active in the military from 1916 to 1952. By the time of the 1943 coup d'état, he held the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the Mountain Division.
Colonel, the highest rank he held before transitioning to a full-time political career as the Governor of Buenos Aires.
He graduated from the National Military College in 1919 and received advanced training at the Superior War College.
The "GOU" and the 1943 Revolution .
Mercante was a key member of the GOU (United Officers' Group), the secret nationalist military society that orchestrated the June 4, 1943, coup against President Ramón Castillo.
Architect of the GOU: Mercante later claimed that he and Juan Perón founded the GOU together between late 1942 and May 1943.
Labor Liaison: Because his father had been a railway union leader, Mercante became the crucial link between the military regime and organized labor. He facilitated the alliance between labor leaders and the then-Labor Minister, Colonel Juan Perón.
October 17, 1945: Mercante was instrumental in organizing the massive worker demonstrations that secured Perón's release from prison, a day now celebrated as "Loyalty Day".
Secretary of Labor: He served as the Secretary of Labor and Welfare (1945–1946) before transitioning fully into civilian politics.
Gubernatorial Transition: Like Perón, he effectively retired from active military service to pursue his political career. He was elected Governor of Buenos Aires Province in 1946, serving until 1952.
Mercante's Role and Fate During the Coup
In 1955, despite having been politically marginalized by Juan Perón years earlier, Colonel Domingo Mercante remained loyal to the constitutional order and actively joined efforts to quell the September 1955 coup d'état.
Defense of the Government: Even after his expulsion from the Peronist Party in 1953—following a fallout with Perón, who viewed Mercante's immense popularity as a threat—the retired officer chose to fight against the Revolución Libertadora.
Imprisonment and Trial: When the military coup successfully overthrew Perón, the new de facto regime arrested and tried Mercante for his past association with the Peronist government.
Colonel Domingo Alfredo Mercante (1898–1976) was a career military officer and a founding figure of Peronism, often described as the "heart of Perón" for his essential role in the movement's early success.
He entered the National Military College in 1914 and graduated in 1919 and was active in the military from 1916 to 1952. By the time of the 1943 coup d'état, he held the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the Mountain Division.
Colonel, the highest rank he held before transitioning to a full-time political career as the Governor of Buenos Aires.
He graduated from the National Military College in 1919 and received advanced training at the Superior War College.
The "GOU" and the 1943 Revolution .
Mercante was a key member of the GOU (United Officers' Group), the secret nationalist military society that orchestrated the June 4, 1943, coup against President Ramón Castillo.
Architect of the GOU: Mercante later claimed that he and Juan Perón founded the GOU together between late 1942 and May 1943.
Labor Liaison: Because his father had been a railway union leader, Mercante became the crucial link between the military regime and organized labor. He facilitated the alliance between labor leaders and the then-Labor Minister, Colonel Juan Perón.
October 17, 1945: Mercante was instrumental in organizing the massive worker demonstrations that secured Perón's release from prison, a day now celebrated as "Loyalty Day".
Secretary of Labor: He served as the Secretary of Labor and Welfare (1945–1946) before transitioning fully into civilian politics.
Gubernatorial Transition: Like Perón, he effectively retired from active military service to pursue his political career. He was elected Governor of Buenos Aires Province in 1946, serving until 1952.
Mercante's Role and Fate During the Coup
In 1955, despite having been politically marginalized by Juan Perón years earlier, Colonel Domingo Mercante remained loyal to the constitutional order and actively joined efforts to quell the September 1955 coup d'état.
Defense of the Government: Even after his expulsion from the Peronist Party in 1953—following a fallout with Perón, who viewed Mercante's immense popularity as a threat—the retired officer chose to fight against the Revolución Libertadora.
Imprisonment and Trial: When the military coup successfully overthrew Perón, the new de facto regime arrested and tried Mercante for his past association with the Peronist government.
Artillery School, Campo de Mayo (May Field) (1945)
155mm L15 M28 Howitzer Schneider.
155mm Schneider mod. 1928 L15.
Artillery School Sgt. Cabral 1945 (Heavy Artillery).
Schneider 1.5cm 155mm howitzer.
The 155mm Schneider "Modelo Argentino 1928" (L/15.05) was a heavy field howitzer used by the Argentine Army, derived from the French Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider design.
The designation L/15.05 refers to its barrel length of approximately 15 calibers, a relatively short length typical for a heavy howitzer, which prioritized high-angle fire for powerful bombardments over extreme velocity.
Caliber: 155 mm.
Barrel Length: Approximately 2.332 meters (7 ft 7.8 in), or 15.05 calibers.
Weight in Action: Approximately 3,300 kg (7,300 lb).
Maximum Range: Around 11,200 meters (12,400 yards).
Rate of Fire: Up to 3 rounds per minute.
Argentine Service
Modernization Program: Argentina adopted this howitzer as part of the significant 1928 modernization program, purchasing a modern variant featuring a split-trail carriage which allowed for wider traverse compared to older box-trail designs.
Dual Models: The Argentine Army used two distinct 155mm Schneider variants acquired at this time: the short-barreled howitzer (Obús) L/15.05 and a longer-barreled field gun (Cañón) L/30.05.
Longevity: These reliable pieces of artillery had a long service life, remaining in use for training purposes at the Colegio Militar de la Nación into the 1980s, a testament to their robust design and continued utility. Some were later donated to neighboring countries like Bolivia.
The designation L/15.05 refers to its barrel length of approximately 15 calibers, a relatively short length typical for a heavy howitzer, which prioritized high-angle fire for powerful bombardments over extreme velocity.
Caliber: 155 mm.
Barrel Length: Approximately 2.332 meters (7 ft 7.8 in), or 15.05 calibers.
Weight in Action: Approximately 3,300 kg (7,300 lb).
Maximum Range: Around 11,200 meters (12,400 yards).
Rate of Fire: Up to 3 rounds per minute.
Argentine Service
Modernization Program: Argentina adopted this howitzer as part of the significant 1928 modernization program, purchasing a modern variant featuring a split-trail carriage which allowed for wider traverse compared to older box-trail designs.
Dual Models: The Argentine Army used two distinct 155mm Schneider variants acquired at this time: the short-barreled howitzer (Obús) L/15.05 and a longer-barreled field gun (Cañón) L/30.05.
Longevity: These reliable pieces of artillery had a long service life, remaining in use for training purposes at the Colegio Militar de la Nación into the 1980s, a testament to their robust design and continued utility. Some were later donated to neighboring countries like Bolivia.
75mm 7.5cm Cannon. Bofors 75mm M35 L40.
In the Argentine Army, the Bofors 75mm L/40 Modelo Argentino 1935 succeed the Krupp 75mm L/30 Modelo 1909 as the standard-issue field artillery piece. While the Krupp M1909 served as the backbone of the horse and field artillery for the first three decades of the 20th century, the Bofors M1935 represented a significant modernization in both range and mobility.
Argentina was a major user of Bofors 75mm guns, specifically adopting the Bofors 75mm L/40 "Argentine Model 1935" as a standard piece of field artillery. This was part of a major rearmament program that established Bofors as a primary supplier to the Argentine armed forces.
This weapon was a modern, fast-firing field gun for its era, intended to replace or supplement the older Krupp 75mm guns.
Officially known in Argentina as the "Modelo Argentino 1935" (M35).
Barrel Length: It featured a 40-caliber barrel (L/40), which was longer and offered better range and velocity than the older Krupp L/30 models.
The design featured a split-trail carriage, allowing for a wide traverse and making it adaptable for potential anti-aircraft (AA) or anti-tank (AT) roles, reflecting Bofors' expertise in versatile designs. It was a general-purpose artillery piece.
Argentina placed a large order for 224 pieces, a very significant acquisition at the time.
Argentina was a major user of Bofors 75mm guns, specifically adopting the Bofors 75mm L/40 "Argentine Model 1935" as a standard piece of field artillery. This was part of a major rearmament program that established Bofors as a primary supplier to the Argentine armed forces.
This weapon was a modern, fast-firing field gun for its era, intended to replace or supplement the older Krupp 75mm guns.
Officially known in Argentina as the "Modelo Argentino 1935" (M35).
Barrel Length: It featured a 40-caliber barrel (L/40), which was longer and offered better range and velocity than the older Krupp L/30 models.
The design featured a split-trail carriage, allowing for a wide traverse and making it adaptable for potential anti-aircraft (AA) or anti-tank (AT) roles, reflecting Bofors' expertise in versatile designs. It was a general-purpose artillery piece.
Argentina placed a large order for 224 pieces, a very significant acquisition at the time.
Demonstration of shooting mechanics (tiro mecanico) before military attaches. Photo is from 1945 from an artillery school, ( Escuela de Artillería in Campo de Mayo).
The large machine in the foreground is a mechanical firing simulator or a specialized training lathe used to teach the complex internal mechanics of artillery pieces. It allowed instructors to demonstrate breech-block operation, recoil systems, and elevation/traverse mechanics without the cost or danger of live firing. Just as a flight simulator uses a cockpit mockup to teach a pilot how to handle controls without leaving the hangar, this "tiro mecánico" setup functioned as a procedural simulator for heavy artillery
"Tiro Mecánico": This term refers to the study of the mechanical actions involved in firing a gun. In the mid-1940s, this was a critical part of an officer's education to ensure they could maintain and troubleshoot heavy weaponry in the field.
The men observing from the balcony are military attachés and high-ranking officers. Such demonstrations were often used to showcase the technical proficiency and modernization of the Argentine Army to foreign representatives.
By 1945, Argentina was integrating a mix of older German/French equipment with newer domestic designs and early Lend-Lease material. Training schools became centers for standardizing technical knowledge across these different systems.
The large machine in the foreground is a mechanical firing simulator or a specialized training lathe used to teach the complex internal mechanics of artillery pieces. It allowed instructors to demonstrate breech-block operation, recoil systems, and elevation/traverse mechanics without the cost or danger of live firing. Just as a flight simulator uses a cockpit mockup to teach a pilot how to handle controls without leaving the hangar, this "tiro mecánico" setup functioned as a procedural simulator for heavy artillery
"Tiro Mecánico": This term refers to the study of the mechanical actions involved in firing a gun. In the mid-1940s, this was a critical part of an officer's education to ensure they could maintain and troubleshoot heavy weaponry in the field.
The men observing from the balcony are military attachés and high-ranking officers. Such demonstrations were often used to showcase the technical proficiency and modernization of the Argentine Army to foreign representatives.
By 1945, Argentina was integrating a mix of older German/French equipment with newer domestic designs and early Lend-Lease material. Training schools became centers for standardizing technical knowledge across these different systems.
Schneider Howitzer 155mm L15 M28.
1st Artillery Regiment of Ciudadela (1945)
Left: Schneider 105mm. Right Scheneider mod. 1928 75mm.
Schneider howitzer 15cm 155mm L.15 mod. 1928 and mod. 1929.
1.5 ton Chevy trucks and trailers with Schneider 105mm. Thornicroft truck w/schneiders 155mm L.31.
Schneider howitzer 15cm 155mm L.15 mod. 1928 and Chevys mod. 41/42 w/oerlikon 20mm AA.
Schneider 155mm.
Schneider 105mm L30.8 gun Model 1928.
The 105mm L30.8 Model 1928 and the WW1 era French Model 1913 L28.4.
The Argentine Model 1928 (officially Modelo 1928) refers to a newer, distinct family of export artillery that featured significant design improvements over the WWI-era Model 1913. The primary difference lies in the carriage. The Model 1913 used a box trail carriage (a single solid beam), which limited its horizontal traverse. The Model 1928 series used modern split-trail carriages, allowing for much wider traverse and higher elevation.
The Argentine "Model 1928" Family: Argentina purchased a wide variety of Schneider guns under the 1928 designation, including:
105mm L/30 Field Gun: A long-range field gun.
105mm L/17.8 Howitzer: A shorter-barreled howitzer.
105mm L/12.4 Mountain Howitzer: A pack-portable version.
The Argentine Model 1928 field guns were more closely related to the Schneider Model 1929 (like the Polish wz. 29), which featured longer barrels (L/30 or L/31) and improved range compared to the L/28 barrel of the original Model 1913.
Confusion with Other Nations
The confusion often stems from other countries using different years for the same weapon:
Italy: Renamed their Model 1913 guns as the Cannone da 105/28 Modelo 1913.
Poland: Used the original as wz. 13 and the modernized version as wz. 29.
Argentina: Specifically grouped their 1920s Schneider acquisitions (75mm, 105mm, and 155mm) under the 1928 model year
The 105mm L30.8 Model 1928 and the WW1 era French Model 1913 L28.4.
The Argentine Model 1928 (officially Modelo 1928) refers to a newer, distinct family of export artillery that featured significant design improvements over the WWI-era Model 1913. The primary difference lies in the carriage. The Model 1913 used a box trail carriage (a single solid beam), which limited its horizontal traverse. The Model 1928 series used modern split-trail carriages, allowing for much wider traverse and higher elevation.
The Argentine "Model 1928" Family: Argentina purchased a wide variety of Schneider guns under the 1928 designation, including:
105mm L/30 Field Gun: A long-range field gun.
105mm L/17.8 Howitzer: A shorter-barreled howitzer.
105mm L/12.4 Mountain Howitzer: A pack-portable version.
The Argentine Model 1928 field guns were more closely related to the Schneider Model 1929 (like the Polish wz. 29), which featured longer barrels (L/30 or L/31) and improved range compared to the L/28 barrel of the original Model 1913.
Confusion with Other Nations
The confusion often stems from other countries using different years for the same weapon:
Italy: Renamed their Model 1913 guns as the Cannone da 105/28 Modelo 1913.
Poland: Used the original as wz. 13 and the modernized version as wz. 29.
Argentina: Specifically grouped their 1920s Schneider acquisitions (75mm, 105mm, and 155mm) under the 1928 model year
Artillery School, Campo de Mayo (May Field) 1948
CCKW-352 (SWB) Short wheelbase, prime mover for the field artillery (155mm). The trucks were very similar to the CCW but without front wheel drive.
Schneider 155mm L15 Model 1928 howitzer.
On the right the Schneider 155mm L30.8.
75mm L40 Model 1935 Bofors.
75mm L/40 M35 Bofors. Modernized and upgraded pieces with pneumatic tires.
This is the gun that became the "workhorse" of the Argentine mountain and field regiments.The "L/40" refers to the barrel length (40 times the caliber), which was optimized for a balance between range and mobility on the ground
This is the gun that became the "workhorse" of the Argentine mountain and field regiments.The "L/40" refers to the barrel length (40 times the caliber), which was optimized for a balance between range and mobility on the ground
The Schneider 105mm L12,4 Model 1928 "Caballeria" was a specific variant of Schneider's 105mm mountain howitzer designed for the Argentine Army's horse artillery units, where its portability and horse-towing capability made it a "cavalry" gun. The "L12,4" refers to its barrel length of approximately 12.4 calibers, which is relatively short, making the gun compact and lightweight.
155mm L30.8 "L" Model 1928 Schneider. "L" in for Long.
The L/30.8 was the long-range heavy field gun. It was a derivative of the French Canon de 155 L modèle 1917 Schneider.
The Long Gun (L/30.8), known locally as the Obús Schneider 155 mm L/30.8 Modelo 1928, was based on a French design, but it was essentially a modern long-barreled evolution of a WWI-era classic.
This model was a modernization of the M18 (Box type carriage) but with split type carriage, which was the main difference.
The Long Gun (L/30.8), known locally as the Obús Schneider 155 mm L/30.8 Modelo 1928, was based on a French design, but it was essentially a modern long-barreled evolution of a WWI-era classic.
This model was a modernization of the M18 (Box type carriage) but with split type carriage, which was the main difference.
The 155 version Argentina purchased in 1928 featured a longer barrel (30.8 calibers) compared to the original WWI-era French barrel (which was roughly 32 calibers, or 13.4 calibers for howitzers depending on the specific model). This gave it a superior range of nearly 15,000 meters.
The relationship between the "L" (Long) and "C" (Cour/Short) 155mm guns in the Schneider family is a classic example of interwar "franken-gun" engineering. While they both used the same 155mm caliber, their development followed two different paths that eventually merged
The relationship between the "L" (Long) and "C" (Cour/Short) 155mm guns in the Schneider family is a classic example of interwar "franken-gun" engineering. While they both used the same 155mm caliber, their development followed two different paths that eventually merged
The "L/30.8" designation specifically highlights the increased barrel length tailored for Argentina's needs for long-range heavy artillery.
This was based on the legendary Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider (C17S), arguably the best heavy howitzer of the Great War. The C17S was so successful it was also adopted by the U.S. Army as the "155 mm Howitzer Model of 1917/18".
While the core mechanics (breech and recoil system) were from the WWI models, the 1928 contracts typically included interwar modernizations.
Unlike the wooden-spoked, steel-rimmed wheels of 1917, the 1928 models were often fitted with rubber tires for motorized transport at higher speeds.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1930s.
This was based on the legendary Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider (C17S), arguably the best heavy howitzer of the Great War. The C17S was so successful it was also adopted by the U.S. Army as the "155 mm Howitzer Model of 1917/18".
While the core mechanics (breech and recoil system) were from the WWI models, the 1928 contracts typically included interwar modernizations.
Unlike the wooden-spoked, steel-rimmed wheels of 1917, the 1928 models were often fitted with rubber tires for motorized transport at higher speeds.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1930s.
Photos from the archives of LIFE magazine
In 1941, LIFE magazine published a famous and extensive photo essay by photographer Hart Preston titled "Argentina: Its Army is the Best in South America." These photos are the definitive visual record of the equipment the Schneider, Krupp, and Bofors guns captured at the height of Argentina's military prestige.
Field Artillery Gunnery Tables. Artillery Board
 Left: Topographic maps and survey. Photo LIFE.
Right: Artillery Board, (Tablero de Poligonales) .Revista del Suboficial 1944 (NCO, Magazine). |
 |
The "Polygonal Table" is the Spanish term for what English-speaking armies generally called a Plotting Board or Fire Control Board. Observers used a map, a compass, and binoculars to determine the grid coordinates of an enemy target. The battery's exact location and the forward observer's position were pinpointed using the Military Grid Reference System (MGRS).
The FDC (Fire Direction Center), used a large-scale map (e.g., 1:10,000 scale) as their primary working surface. They used pins, string lines, and specialized protractors to physically plot the location of the guns and the target.
Calculating Data: Once the target was plotted, the FDC used a string or ruler to measure the distance (range) and angle (azimuth) between the gun location and the target on the map. This map data was then used with firing tables to determine the elevation and charge needed for the gun.
The FDC (Fire Direction Center), used a large-scale map (e.g., 1:10,000 scale) as their primary working surface. They used pins, string lines, and specialized protractors to physically plot the location of the guns and the target.
Calculating Data: Once the target was plotted, the FDC used a string or ruler to measure the distance (range) and angle (azimuth) between the gun location and the target on the map. This map data was then used with firing tables to determine the elevation and charge needed for the gun.
Bofors 7.5cm 75mm L.40 mod. 1935.
Horse Artillery and crew
Bofors 75mm L40 model 1935 gun.
155mm Schneider cannon transport wagon.
Schneider 155mm L30 M1928.
The Thornycroft "Amazon" was originally a medium-weight 6x4 (later 6x6) truck chassis, designed for good cross-country performance. A batch of 12 units was purchased by Argentina in 1938.
These trucks were sent to the Esteban de Luca Arsenal in Argentina, where a specific caterpillar track system, provided by the manufacturer, was fitted over the two rear axles. This effectively converted them into half-tracks, significantly improving their off-road mobility in muddy or soft terrain.
These trucks were sent to the Esteban de Luca Arsenal in Argentina, where a specific caterpillar track system, provided by the manufacturer, was fitted over the two rear axles. This effectively converted them into half-tracks, significantly improving their off-road mobility in muddy or soft terrain.
155mm M114a1, (M1A2). Medium Field Howitzer.
155mm M114a1, (M1A2). Medium Field Howitzer.
M114A2. Aberdeen Museum. Carriage-Howitzer M1A2. The Oliver Corp 1955.
The 155mm M114A1 were an Argentine attempt to replace the older Schneider 155mm. The 155mm were later replaced by the 15mm L33 Citer M77/81 (developed in the 1970s). This gun was based on the French Mk F3 155mm self-propelled gun (also in service in Argentina). In the 1980s CITEFA developed the 155mm L45 CALA 30/2 Gun to replace the CITER-SOFMA 155mm.
The M114A1 155mm howitzer was a core piece of the "hardware" provided to Argentina through the Military Assistance Program (PAM) by the United States during the Cold War. As part of the Plan de Asistencia Militar (PAM), the US supplied Argentina with surplus WWII and Korean War-era equipment.
The "Mule"
Known for its robustness, the M114 became the standard medium artillery for the Argentine Army and Marines.
Tactical Purpose: It was designed to provide heavy indirect fire support for infantry and armored divisions. In the Argentine context, it served as the heavy "muscle" of the national army until it was surpassed by domestic developments.
The M114A1 Upgrade
The A1 version (standardized in 1962) featured an improved carriage to make towing and deployment more efficient, though it still required a large crew of 11 men.
The Bridge to the CITER
The M114A1 is the direct "ancestor" of the local CITER 155mm.
By the 1970s, the Argentine military wanted to "unplug" from the PAM's technical dependence. The CITER 155mm L33 was developed specifically to replace the aging M114 and the even older Schneider 155mm.
The M114A1 155mm howitzer was a core piece of the "hardware" provided to Argentina through the Military Assistance Program (PAM) by the United States during the Cold War. As part of the Plan de Asistencia Militar (PAM), the US supplied Argentina with surplus WWII and Korean War-era equipment.
The "Mule"
Known for its robustness, the M114 became the standard medium artillery for the Argentine Army and Marines.
Tactical Purpose: It was designed to provide heavy indirect fire support for infantry and armored divisions. In the Argentine context, it served as the heavy "muscle" of the national army until it was surpassed by domestic developments.
The M114A1 Upgrade
The A1 version (standardized in 1962) featured an improved carriage to make towing and deployment more efficient, though it still required a large crew of 11 men.
The Bridge to the CITER
The M114A1 is the direct "ancestor" of the local CITER 155mm.
By the 1970s, the Argentine military wanted to "unplug" from the PAM's technical dependence. The CITER 155mm L33 was developed specifically to replace the aging M114 and the even older Schneider 155mm.
105 mm M2A1 (M101A1) Light Field howitzer.
105 mm M2A1 (M101A1) Light Field howitzer.
The M2A1 105mm howitzer (redesignated as the M101 after World War II) was the primary light artillery "hardware" supplied to Argentina through the Military Assistance Program (PAM) by the United States starting in the 1950s.
The Role of the M2A1 in Argentina
Through the Plan de Asistencia Militar (PAM), the U.S. exported thousands of these surplus wartime howitzers to its Cold War allies. In Argentina, the M2A1 became the standard light field piece for decades, prized for its extreme durability and accuracy.
While it was a WWII design, the Argentine Army maintained a dozen M101s in active service as late as the mid-1980s, alongside more modern acquisitions.
The Role of the M2A1 in Argentina
Through the Plan de Asistencia Militar (PAM), the U.S. exported thousands of these surplus wartime howitzers to its Cold War allies. In Argentina, the M2A1 became the standard light field piece for decades, prized for its extreme durability and accuracy.
While it was a WWII design, the Argentine Army maintained a dozen M101s in active service as late as the mid-1980s, alongside more modern acquisitions.
Malvinas Campaign
The Argentine artillery "machine" in 1982 was a mix of lightweight, helicopter-portable units and heavy, long-range "hammers" that outranged British ground guns.
Heavy Artillery (The "Hammers")
The heaviest "hardware" deployed by Argentina were the CITER 155mm guns, which provided a strategic advantage in range over the British ground forces.
CITER 155mm L33 Modelo 77: Designed by CITEFA, these guns were the "heavy steel" of the defense. Only four units reached the islands, airlifted during the final weeks of the conflict by C-130 Hercules aircraft. With a range of roughly 20–25 km, they forced the British to use intensive counter-battery fire and naval gunfire for suppression. British soldiers noted the massive craters left by the 155mm rounds compared to the 105mm versions.
While the M114 (PAM/US Aid) was in the Argentine inventory and replaced by the CITER, it was primarily held by Marine units.
Field Artillery (The "Workhorses")
The bulk of the fire support was provided by the Oto Melara 105mm, a versatile "machine" that both sides ironically possessed.
Argentina deployed over 30 of these guns across two main groups:
3rd Artillery Group (GA 3): Deployed 18 guns around Port Stanley and Goose Green.
4th Airborne Artillery Group (GA Aerot 4): Deployed 18 guns specifically for the airborne defense.
These guns were highly effective for infantry support and accounting for a significant share of British ground casualties.
Anti-Aircraft Artillery Defense (The Umbrella Shield)
Argentina also maintained a dense "shield" of automatic guns around Port Stanley. Heavy artillery like the CITER 155mm were high-value targets. To protect them from British Harriers, the Argentine military deployed a sophisticated air defense "bubble":
Oerlikon 35mm GDF: Paired with Skyguard fire-control radar, these were the most sophisticated AA machines on the islands.
Rheinmetall 20mm: Used for close-in defense.
Bofors 40mm L/60: The classic "L/60" automatic machine, used for protecting airfields
Heavy Artillery (The "Hammers")
The heaviest "hardware" deployed by Argentina were the CITER 155mm guns, which provided a strategic advantage in range over the British ground forces.
CITER 155mm L33 Modelo 77: Designed by CITEFA, these guns were the "heavy steel" of the defense. Only four units reached the islands, airlifted during the final weeks of the conflict by C-130 Hercules aircraft. With a range of roughly 20–25 km, they forced the British to use intensive counter-battery fire and naval gunfire for suppression. British soldiers noted the massive craters left by the 155mm rounds compared to the 105mm versions.
While the M114 (PAM/US Aid) was in the Argentine inventory and replaced by the CITER, it was primarily held by Marine units.
Field Artillery (The "Workhorses")
The bulk of the fire support was provided by the Oto Melara 105mm, a versatile "machine" that both sides ironically possessed.
Argentina deployed over 30 of these guns across two main groups:
3rd Artillery Group (GA 3): Deployed 18 guns around Port Stanley and Goose Green.
4th Airborne Artillery Group (GA Aerot 4): Deployed 18 guns specifically for the airborne defense.
These guns were highly effective for infantry support and accounting for a significant share of British ground casualties.
Anti-Aircraft Artillery Defense (The Umbrella Shield)
Argentina also maintained a dense "shield" of automatic guns around Port Stanley. Heavy artillery like the CITER 155mm were high-value targets. To protect them from British Harriers, the Argentine military deployed a sophisticated air defense "bubble":
Oerlikon 35mm GDF: Paired with Skyguard fire-control radar, these were the most sophisticated AA machines on the islands.
Rheinmetall 20mm: Used for close-in defense.
Bofors 40mm L/60: The classic "L/60" automatic machine, used for protecting airfields
CITER 155mm L33 Field Gun.
CITER 155mm L33 Field Gun. Photo: Latinoamericastudies.
Argentina is one of the few Latin American nations to design its own heavy ordnance, notably the CITER 155mm L33 and L45 cannons produced by Fabricaciones Militares.
The CITER 155mm L33 gun was developed in the late 1970s specifically to replace Argentina's aging Schneider 155mm howitzers, along with the World War II-era M114 155mm howitzers still in service.
The CITER 155 mm L33 Modelo 77 was the first major result of Argentina's goal for autonomy in heavy artillery, designed by CITEFA (the state defense research institute).
The gun was essentially a re-programmed hybrid. It used the barrel and recoil system from the French Mk F3 self-propelled gun but mounted them on a locally designed towed carriage.
Falklands/Malvinas Performance
During the 1982 conflict, the CITER was the only Argentine weapon with enough "reach" to challenge British naval gunnery. They were flown in by C-130 Hercules in the final weeks of the war to repel British advances around Port Stanley.
The Evolutionary Upgrade: CALA 30
Following the "lessons learned" in 1982, Argentina developed the Cañón de Artillería de Largo Alcance (CALA 30).
Higher "L" Value. Upgrading from L33 to L45, this longer barrel allowed for significantly more range—reaching up to 39 km with special base-bleed ammunition.
The VCA Palmaria. Argentina also created a Self-Propelled version by mounting an Italian Palmaria turret on a lengthened chassis of the TAM tank.
The CITER 155mm L33 gun was developed in the late 1970s specifically to replace Argentina's aging Schneider 155mm howitzers, along with the World War II-era M114 155mm howitzers still in service.
The CITER 155 mm L33 Modelo 77 was the first major result of Argentina's goal for autonomy in heavy artillery, designed by CITEFA (the state defense research institute).
The gun was essentially a re-programmed hybrid. It used the barrel and recoil system from the French Mk F3 self-propelled gun but mounted them on a locally designed towed carriage.
Falklands/Malvinas Performance
During the 1982 conflict, the CITER was the only Argentine weapon with enough "reach" to challenge British naval gunnery. They were flown in by C-130 Hercules in the final weeks of the war to repel British advances around Port Stanley.
The Evolutionary Upgrade: CALA 30
Following the "lessons learned" in 1982, Argentina developed the Cañón de Artillería de Largo Alcance (CALA 30).
Higher "L" Value. Upgrading from L33 to L45, this longer barrel allowed for significantly more range—reaching up to 39 km with special base-bleed ammunition.
The VCA Palmaria. Argentina also created a Self-Propelled version by mounting an Italian Palmaria turret on a lengthened chassis of the TAM tank.
CALA 30 Long-Range Field Artillery System
The CALA 30 (Cañón de Artillería de Largo Alcance) was a modern, locally designed long-range gun developed by CITEFA in the late 1980s. It is a 155mm with 45 calibers barrel lenght approx. 7 meters, hence the "45: in its name. Breech system is a conventional interrupted screw mechanism.
The CALA 30 was designed specifically to fix the range limitations that the CITER 155 faced during the Malvinas/Falklands War (South Atlantic War).
The CITER 155 reaches about 20–24 km. The CALA 30, using ERFB-BB (Base Bleed) ammunition, can hit targets at 39 km. The CALA 30 was a fresh design incorporating modern "long-range" ballistics, similar in concept to the GC-45. The CITER 155 is a standard field howitzer, whereas the CALA 30 is classified as a Long Range Artillery Cannon (Cañón de Artillería de Largo Alcance).
For long-distance travel, the CALA 30 is towed by a heavy 6x6 truck.
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), allows the gun to move autonomously at very low speeds (around 5-10 km/h) to change its firing position or "hide" after firing, a tactic known as "shoot and scoot". The APU also powers the hydraulic systems used to emplace the gun, lower the firing platform, and assist with loading the heavy 155mm shells.
The CALA 30 was designed specifically to fix the range limitations that the CITER 155 faced during the Malvinas/Falklands War (South Atlantic War).
The CITER 155 reaches about 20–24 km. The CALA 30, using ERFB-BB (Base Bleed) ammunition, can hit targets at 39 km. The CALA 30 was a fresh design incorporating modern "long-range" ballistics, similar in concept to the GC-45. The CITER 155 is a standard field howitzer, whereas the CALA 30 is classified as a Long Range Artillery Cannon (Cañón de Artillería de Largo Alcance).
For long-distance travel, the CALA 30 is towed by a heavy 6x6 truck.
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), allows the gun to move autonomously at very low speeds (around 5-10 km/h) to change its firing position or "hide" after firing, a tactic known as "shoot and scoot". The APU also powers the hydraulic systems used to emplace the gun, lower the firing platform, and assist with loading the heavy 155mm shells.
105mm L14 M56 Pak Howitzer Oto Melara.
The Oto Melara Mod 56 (12-mule breakdown) was developed in the 1950s specifically to meet an Italian Army requirement to replace the outdated Skoda 75/13 mountain (6-mule breakdown) guns from World War I. The production was carried out by Oto Melara (then known as Odero-Terni-Orlando).
The Skoda 75/13 (known in Austria-Hungary as the 7.5 cm Gebirgskanone M.15) entered the Italian "machine" through two different doors: war booty and domestic production (The Model 18). Italy even produced an updated version known as the 75/13 modello 18 (Obice da 75/13) , which featured a slightly different carriage to allow for better towing by motor vehicles rather than just mules.
Argentina's answer to the Skoda 75/13 (Obice da 75/13) was the Schneider 75 mm Mle 1928, often identified as the L. 18.2 Modelo 1928 in Argentine service. While the Skoda served as the "backbone" for Italy's Alpini, the Schneider Mle 1928 (and the larger 105 mm mountain variant) played a similar foundational role for Argentina’s mountain artillery during the mid-20th century.
1960s "Plan Europa"
In the 1960s, the US began restricting the sale of "sophisticated" weapons to South America to avoid arms races.
Argentina turned to Europe (specifically France, Germany, and Italy) to buy the latest military "hardware" that also came with technology transfer agreements. The Oto Melara Mod 56 was chosen because it was the most modern "mountain software" available. It fit perfectly into the Argentine goal of localizing production and maintenance through Fabricaciones Militares.
The Skoda 75/13 (known in Austria-Hungary as the 7.5 cm Gebirgskanone M.15) entered the Italian "machine" through two different doors: war booty and domestic production (The Model 18). Italy even produced an updated version known as the 75/13 modello 18 (Obice da 75/13) , which featured a slightly different carriage to allow for better towing by motor vehicles rather than just mules.
Argentina's answer to the Skoda 75/13 (Obice da 75/13) was the Schneider 75 mm Mle 1928, often identified as the L. 18.2 Modelo 1928 in Argentine service. While the Skoda served as the "backbone" for Italy's Alpini, the Schneider Mle 1928 (and the larger 105 mm mountain variant) played a similar foundational role for Argentina’s mountain artillery during the mid-20th century.
1960s "Plan Europa"
In the 1960s, the US began restricting the sale of "sophisticated" weapons to South America to avoid arms races.
Argentina turned to Europe (specifically France, Germany, and Italy) to buy the latest military "hardware" that also came with technology transfer agreements. The Oto Melara Mod 56 was chosen because it was the most modern "mountain software" available. It fit perfectly into the Argentine goal of localizing production and maintenance through Fabricaciones Militares.
 Desperate combat until the last of the cartridges which could not be replenished due to the blockade. The enemy continues to overpower the terrain. "La Semana" Magazine 1982.
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The Argentine Army used the Oto Melara 105mm mod 56
extensively. The 3rd Artillery Group (GA3) and 4th Artillery Group were equipped with these weapons and deployed to the Islands. After the Argentine surrender, a number of these guns were captured by British forces. The British Army had previously used the same weapon (known in Commonwealth service as the "L5 pack howitzer"). However, by the time of the Falklands conflict, the British had replaced the L5 with the superior L118 light gun, which offered a significantly greater range (around 17km vs the Mod 56's 10.5km). Performance Despite its shorter range compared to the L118, the Mod 56 was highly effective for infantry support and accounted for a considerable share of all British casualties suffered in land battles. Ammunition: The howitzer is light and can be broken down into 12 parts for easy transport, including by helicopter or small vehicles. It fires the standard US type M1 semi-fixed ammunition, which can be adjusted with seven different charge bags to vary the range. |
1970s. M56 surplus.
A notable historical irony is that the British Army sold its surplus L5 pack howitzers to Argentina in 1976/77, only six years before they were used against them in the conflict. While there was a major U.S. arms embargo against Argentina for human rights concerns (Argentina's "Spring" against Peron, and Isabel's war against guerrillas", starting in 1977, the United Kingdom did not impose a full embargo at that time. This allowed the sale of the surplus Oto Melara 105mm howitzers (known as the L5 Pack Howitzer in British service) to proceed.
The 1976/77 Deal: The surplus L5 units were sold to Argentina in 1976 and 1977. These were precisely the guns used by Argentine airborne and artillery forces against British troops in the 1982 conflict.
Captured Guns: After the war, several of these British-sold guns were captured back by British paratroopers and are now displayed as "gate guardians" in the UK.
Argentina took advantage of the British Army replacing its own "L5" (Oto Melara) units with the L118 light gun. They bought these surplus British units to quickly bulk up their numbers, especially for the airborne and marine units.
A notable historical irony is that the British Army sold its surplus L5 pack howitzers to Argentina in 1976/77, only six years before they were used against them in the conflict. While there was a major U.S. arms embargo against Argentina for human rights concerns (Argentina's "Spring" against Peron, and Isabel's war against guerrillas", starting in 1977, the United Kingdom did not impose a full embargo at that time. This allowed the sale of the surplus Oto Melara 105mm howitzers (known as the L5 Pack Howitzer in British service) to proceed.
The 1976/77 Deal: The surplus L5 units were sold to Argentina in 1976 and 1977. These were precisely the guns used by Argentine airborne and artillery forces against British troops in the 1982 conflict.
Captured Guns: After the war, several of these British-sold guns were captured back by British paratroopers and are now displayed as "gate guardians" in the UK.
Argentina took advantage of the British Army replacing its own "L5" (Oto Melara) units with the L118 light gun. They bought these surplus British units to quickly bulk up their numbers, especially for the airborne and marine units.
Argentine Mountain Artillery
Air Defense Artillery. Link:
This page is dedicated to Artillery Conscript Soldier Sol. C/24, Juan Carlos Mazzeo.
