In 19th-century Argentina, the conflict between Unitarians (Unitarios) and Federals (Federales) was a series of civil wars (roughly 1814–1880) over how to organize the newly independent nation.
The primary dispute was between a centralized government led by Buenos Aires (Unitarians) and a decentralized federation of autonomous provinces (Federals).
Unitarian Party
Government Centralized: Strong central power in Buenos Aires; provincial governors appointed by the president.
Economics: Free Trade: Favored exports and European imports; wanted to keep port revenues in Buenos Aires.
Social Base: Elite/Urban: Primarily upper-class intellectuals and merchants in Buenos Aires.
Ideology: Liberal/Secular: Inspired by European enlightenment; promoted modern education and infrastructure.
Symbols: Blue and white; associated with the "civilized" elite.
Federal Party
Government: Decentralized: Autonomous provinces linked by a weak central government; similar to the U.S. model.
Economics: Protectionism: Favored local industry; wanted to share port revenues among all provinces.
Social Base: Popular/Rural: Supported by gauchos, rural workers, and local caudillos (strongmen).
Ideology: Traditional/Religious: Defended "Religion or Death"; emphasized traditional Hispanic and criollo values.
Symbols: Red (the divisa punzó); associated with the "restoration of laws".
The complex geopolitical reality that made 19th-century Argentine nation-building so volatile. The struggle was not just over internal governance but over the very definition of what "Argentina" should be, complicated by local "caudillos," foreign intervention, and the threat of "balkanization."
The failure of early constitutional attempts, particularly the Constitution of 1826, was a direct result of these disputes.
Federalists rejected the 1826 text not only because it allowed the President to appoint provincial governors but also because they viewed the Unitarian leadership as willing to sacrifice territorial integrity specifically the Banda Oriental to secure a quick peace and maintain trade in Buenos Aires.
This territory was a flashpoint. While leaders like Manuel Oribe and the "Thirty-Three Orientals" fought to keep it within the United Provinces, the Unitarian government under Bernardino Rivadavia signed the Preliminary Peace Convention of 1828, which established Uruguay's independence—a move the Federals and the military viewed as a betrayal.
Manuel Oribe & the Blancos: Oribe was the "faithful ally" of the Argentine Federalist leader Juan Manuel de Rosas. He sought to integrate the Banda Oriental with the Confederation, leading the "Gobierno del Cerrito" during the Great Siege of Montevideo.
The Unitarian "nucleus" in Montevideo supported Fructuoso Rivera and the Colorado Party. This alliance prioritized separation from the Argentine Confederation to protect urban interests and liberal trade policies.
The Unitarians were often accused of being indifferent to the annexation of this region by the Empire of Brazil, as their focus remained on the port of Buenos Aires rather than the "hinterland" borders.
Foreign Intervention and "Balkanization"
The balkanization was fueled by European powers seeking to secure "freedom of the rivers" for trade.
Britain & France: Both powers intervened (notably during the Anglo-French blockade) to prevent Rosas from controlling both banks of the River Plate. They favored a "buffer state" (Uruguay) to ensure no single power could dominate the vital commercial waterway.
This fragmentation nearly led to the permanent separation of the littoral provinces and the north (Salta and Jujuy), as the lack of a central "Magna Carta" left the provinces as a loose collection of autonomous states until the Constitution of 1853.
The primary dispute was between a centralized government led by Buenos Aires (Unitarians) and a decentralized federation of autonomous provinces (Federals).
Unitarian Party
Government Centralized: Strong central power in Buenos Aires; provincial governors appointed by the president.
Economics: Free Trade: Favored exports and European imports; wanted to keep port revenues in Buenos Aires.
Social Base: Elite/Urban: Primarily upper-class intellectuals and merchants in Buenos Aires.
Ideology: Liberal/Secular: Inspired by European enlightenment; promoted modern education and infrastructure.
Symbols: Blue and white; associated with the "civilized" elite.
Federal Party
Government: Decentralized: Autonomous provinces linked by a weak central government; similar to the U.S. model.
Economics: Protectionism: Favored local industry; wanted to share port revenues among all provinces.
Social Base: Popular/Rural: Supported by gauchos, rural workers, and local caudillos (strongmen).
Ideology: Traditional/Religious: Defended "Religion or Death"; emphasized traditional Hispanic and criollo values.
Symbols: Red (the divisa punzó); associated with the "restoration of laws".
The complex geopolitical reality that made 19th-century Argentine nation-building so volatile. The struggle was not just over internal governance but over the very definition of what "Argentina" should be, complicated by local "caudillos," foreign intervention, and the threat of "balkanization."
The failure of early constitutional attempts, particularly the Constitution of 1826, was a direct result of these disputes.
Federalists rejected the 1826 text not only because it allowed the President to appoint provincial governors but also because they viewed the Unitarian leadership as willing to sacrifice territorial integrity specifically the Banda Oriental to secure a quick peace and maintain trade in Buenos Aires.
This territory was a flashpoint. While leaders like Manuel Oribe and the "Thirty-Three Orientals" fought to keep it within the United Provinces, the Unitarian government under Bernardino Rivadavia signed the Preliminary Peace Convention of 1828, which established Uruguay's independence—a move the Federals and the military viewed as a betrayal.
Manuel Oribe & the Blancos: Oribe was the "faithful ally" of the Argentine Federalist leader Juan Manuel de Rosas. He sought to integrate the Banda Oriental with the Confederation, leading the "Gobierno del Cerrito" during the Great Siege of Montevideo.
The Unitarian "nucleus" in Montevideo supported Fructuoso Rivera and the Colorado Party. This alliance prioritized separation from the Argentine Confederation to protect urban interests and liberal trade policies.
The Unitarians were often accused of being indifferent to the annexation of this region by the Empire of Brazil, as their focus remained on the port of Buenos Aires rather than the "hinterland" borders.
Foreign Intervention and "Balkanization"
The balkanization was fueled by European powers seeking to secure "freedom of the rivers" for trade.
Britain & France: Both powers intervened (notably during the Anglo-French blockade) to prevent Rosas from controlling both banks of the River Plate. They favored a "buffer state" (Uruguay) to ensure no single power could dominate the vital commercial waterway.
This fragmentation nearly led to the permanent separation of the littoral provinces and the north (Salta and Jujuy), as the lack of a central "Magna Carta" left the provinces as a loose collection of autonomous states until the Constitution of 1853.
Argentine-Brazilian War 1825 to 1828
Battle of Sarandi. October 12, 1825
Battle of Ituzaingo. February 20 1827
Battle of Juncal. Febraury 8/9 1827
Battle of Monte Santiago 7/8 1827
Independence and Constitution of Uruguay 1825 - 1830.
1829 Battle of Vizcacheras. The death of Colonel Friedrich Rauch. It is a drawing of the artist Francisco Fortuny. Note the Wheel "Forage or campaign" cap.
1933-34 Indian Wars Campaigns and Desert Expedition
The objective of said campaign was to end the Indian attacks on frontier populations, free captives, and cut the contraband of stolen cows that the Indians passed into Chile. The strategy consisted of three advance lines: The left was under the command of Juan Manuel de Rosas and would operate along the Rio Colorado y Negro until the Neuquén Region; The center was under the command of Ruiz Huidobro in the Central Pampa; The right was under the command of Felix Aldao in the Andina Region. The weight of the operation was supported by Rosas' left column, who had to extend to Neuquén before the advance of the Chilean Army, itself carrying out a campaign against the Indians. An interesting note is that a young Charles Darwin (whose image is on the map), was found at that time exploring Patagonia, including the Malvinas Islands, and investigating species' evolution. On that voyage through Indian territory, he came across the Juan Manuel de Rosas' camp in the middle of the desert.
General-in-chief): Brigadier Juan Manuel de Rosas; High command chief: General Angel Pacheco.
Colonels: Manuel Corvalan (Edecan); Pedro Ramos; Antonio Ramirez; Ramon Rodriguez; Juan A. Garreton.
Lieutenant Colonels: Jose Maria Flores; Francisco Sosa; Hilario Lagos; Narciso del Valle; Miguel Miranda; Juan Pedro Luna; Juan Jose Hernandez; Roque Cepeda; Faustino Velazco; Felipe Julianes'
Sergeant Majors: Leandro Ibanez; Ventura Minana; Manuel C. Garcia, Geronimo Costa; Felix A. Meneses; Joaquin Casco; Rafael Fuentes; Bernardo Echeverria.
I addition to military personnel and maintenance, there were civilians, medical professionals, engineers, astronomers, among other.
Colonels: Manuel Corvalan (Edecan); Pedro Ramos; Antonio Ramirez; Ramon Rodriguez; Juan A. Garreton.
Lieutenant Colonels: Jose Maria Flores; Francisco Sosa; Hilario Lagos; Narciso del Valle; Miguel Miranda; Juan Pedro Luna; Juan Jose Hernandez; Roque Cepeda; Faustino Velazco; Felipe Julianes'
Sergeant Majors: Leandro Ibanez; Ventura Minana; Manuel C. Garcia, Geronimo Costa; Felix A. Meneses; Joaquin Casco; Rafael Fuentes; Bernardo Echeverria.
I addition to military personnel and maintenance, there were civilians, medical professionals, engineers, astronomers, among other.
1833-34 Desert Campaign. Rosas, General Pacheco and Colonel "Edecan",Corvalan by Jose Manuel Blanes.
Orde of battle:
Infantry:
1st Batallion (Patricios Regiment): Colonel Antonio Ramirez
Line Piquetes (Platoon-Section): Colonel Ramon Rodriguez
Artillery: (1-Battery), Colonel Juan Pedro Luna
Cavalry:
Line Squadron of the N2 Regiment: Colonel Hilario Lagos
Line Squadron of the N3 Regiment: Colonel Miguel Miranda
Line Squadron of the N4 Regiment: Colonel Jose Maria Flores
Piquete (Platoon-Section) of the N5 Regiment: Major Ventura Miñana
N6 Squadron: Lieutenant Colonel Roque Cepeda
N9 Regiment: Lieutenant Colonel Narciso del Valle
N10 Regiment: Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Sosa
Escort Squadron: Lieutenant Colonel Juan Jose Luciano Hernandez
1st Batallion (Patricios Regiment): Colonel Antonio Ramirez
Line Piquetes (Platoon-Section): Colonel Ramon Rodriguez
Artillery: (1-Battery), Colonel Juan Pedro Luna
Cavalry:
Line Squadron of the N2 Regiment: Colonel Hilario Lagos
Line Squadron of the N3 Regiment: Colonel Miguel Miranda
Line Squadron of the N4 Regiment: Colonel Jose Maria Flores
Piquete (Platoon-Section) of the N5 Regiment: Major Ventura Miñana
N6 Squadron: Lieutenant Colonel Roque Cepeda
N9 Regiment: Lieutenant Colonel Narciso del Valle
N10 Regiment: Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Sosa
Escort Squadron: Lieutenant Colonel Juan Jose Luciano Hernandez
Source: Historia de la Confederación Argentina: Rozas y su época, Volume 2 by Adolfo Saldias.
1931-1833 USS Lexington attack and British Occupation.
As a consequence of the control against poaching and deaths of seals, the Argentine government detained 3 fishing ships of US origin (Harriet, Superior y Breakwater). On December 28, 1831, the sloop USS Lexington, under the command of Captain Silas Dunkan, attacked and destroyed Puerto Soledad with naval fire and landing troops. Interestingly, the American ship used a French flag. After these events, the British crown ordered its fleet based in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to occupy the Malvinas Islands. On January 3, 1833, the British began to occupy the islands. Commander John James Onslow at the head of the HMS Clio Cruizer class brig-sloop, supported by the Corvette Tyne, made the Argentine troops surrender. They were under the command of Navy Lieutenant-Colonel José María Pinedo at the head of the Schooner ARA Sarandi. The islands were taken for the British Crown of King William IV.
1844: Sailing frigate USS Congress (1841) and other US ships against the Argentine Confederation Fleet during the naval blockade of Montevideo.
According to Wikipedia: "Congress was launched at the Portsmouth Navy Yard on August 16, 1841 and placed in commission under Captain Philip Voorhees on May 7, 1842. Her first cruise, starting on July 15, took her to the Mediterranean for service with the Squadron of Commodores Charles W. Morgan and Charles Morris. In December 1843, Voorhees joined Commodore Daniel Turner's Brazil Squadron blockading Montevideo in safeguarding U.S. trade during the Uruguayan Civil War. On September 29, 1844, Voorhees captured an armed Argentine schooner that delivered a mail to the Argentine commanding officer.This overreaction damaged the US-Argentina relation and resulted in a court martial for Voorhees. His impetuosity resulted in a few months suspension, for Voorhees, but did little damage to his career. Congress remained active in the theatre until January 1845. She was then placed in ordinary at Norfolk, Virginia in March".
Farrapos War 1835 - 1845. (Rio Grande - Santa Catalina)
The current territory of Rio Grande del Sur was found, in colonial times, within the Viceroy of the Rio de la Plata. Under the name of Rio Grande it was known originally as a region on the Atlantic coast on the Oriental Band (Uruguay), in south-central South America and belonged to Spain. Its borders were the Jesuit Missions situated to the east of the Uruguay River, on the Oriental Band. There one could find the Siete Pueblos de las Misiones (Seven Towns of the Missions). These towns were as gaucho as Argentines, Uruguayans, and Paraguayans. Despite being border territory between Spain and Portugal, with the decline of the Spanish Empire they were impotent in avoiding the Luso-Brazilian penetration in Rio Grande. Annexed by Portugal (later Brazil) in definitive form through the War of Brazil and the Guerra Grande (as a way of repaying debts from the Liberal Colorado Party ).
In this separatist war "Ragamuffin or Farrapos War" (Guerra en harapos), lasting between 1835 and 1845 ", we find the separatist Liberal republics Rio-Grande and Juliana (Catarina - Catarinense Republic being supported by the Liberal Unitarian forces, the Colorado Party, the Argentine Unitarians, and foreigners like the Red Shirts of Giuseppe Garibaldi (Santa Catalina), against the Brazilian Empire. The above photo in particular seems to be of Argentine Federal forces, but with the red flag would indicate the Colorado Party (itself a separation from the Argentine Confederation). This shows how the Unitarians like the Argentine Federals, and the correlating groups in Uruguay, Colorados and Blancos, dressed and equipped themselves exactly the same. For this reason the federals used a red ribbon (Cintillo Punzo), to differentiate themselves. In these wars the participation of Indian parties could also be counted on at times.
Sources: Wikipedia.
Sources: Wikipedia.
1839. Batalla de Tapalque
The Battle of Tapalqué (or Combate de Tapalqué) took place on August 20, 1839, in the Buenos Aires Province of Argentina. It was a significant clash between the forces of the Argentine Confederation and a large indigenous coalition.
The Argentine government forces, 3rd Cavalry Regiment under command of Colonel Nicolas Granada supported by the cuirassier of the Squadron "Escolta Libertad" under Lieutenant Ramon Bustos plus Allies Pampas Warriors, faced a coalition of approximately 2,000 warriors. This alliance included Ranqueles, Boroganos, and indigenous groups from Chile who had recently crossed the Andes.
The indigenous forces launched a surprise attack on the settlement of Tapalqué (Canton Tapalque Viejo), aiming to capture livestock and retaliate against frontier expansions. Despite the initial shock, the government troops managed to regroup, counter-attack, and eventually pursue the retreating indigenous forces into the surrounding countryside.
The battle resulted in a victory for the Argentine Confederation. Following the action, the government issued a decree on August 24, 1839, granting awards to the soldiers who fought in the engagement to honor their bravery.
This battle occurred during a period of intense frontier conflict in Argentina, as the state sought to consolidate control over the Pampas. It also took place amidst the broader political instability of the Argentine Civil Wars, where Juan Manuel de Rosas used military successes on the frontier to bolster his political authority.
In the Battle of Tapalqué, Lieutenant Colonel Ramón Bustos was indeed severely wounded while leading the Escuadrón Escolta Libertad during the initial chaos of the surprise attack. Despite his injuries, his leadership in organizing the defense is considered a pivotal reason the fort didn't fall immediately.
During the height of the engagement, as the coalition forces of Calfutrún, Rengue, and Baigorria swarmed the camp, The then soldier Donato Álvarez reportedly saved the unit's colors or provided critical cover for the wounded Lieutenant Colonel Ramon Bustos. Because of his "gallant behavior" and courage during this specific battle, he was promoted from the ranks. This served as a launching point for his long and distinguished career.
The Argentine government forces, 3rd Cavalry Regiment under command of Colonel Nicolas Granada supported by the cuirassier of the Squadron "Escolta Libertad" under Lieutenant Ramon Bustos plus Allies Pampas Warriors, faced a coalition of approximately 2,000 warriors. This alliance included Ranqueles, Boroganos, and indigenous groups from Chile who had recently crossed the Andes.
The indigenous forces launched a surprise attack on the settlement of Tapalqué (Canton Tapalque Viejo), aiming to capture livestock and retaliate against frontier expansions. Despite the initial shock, the government troops managed to regroup, counter-attack, and eventually pursue the retreating indigenous forces into the surrounding countryside.
The battle resulted in a victory for the Argentine Confederation. Following the action, the government issued a decree on August 24, 1839, granting awards to the soldiers who fought in the engagement to honor their bravery.
This battle occurred during a period of intense frontier conflict in Argentina, as the state sought to consolidate control over the Pampas. It also took place amidst the broader political instability of the Argentine Civil Wars, where Juan Manuel de Rosas used military successes on the frontier to bolster his political authority.
In the Battle of Tapalqué, Lieutenant Colonel Ramón Bustos was indeed severely wounded while leading the Escuadrón Escolta Libertad during the initial chaos of the surprise attack. Despite his injuries, his leadership in organizing the defense is considered a pivotal reason the fort didn't fall immediately.
During the height of the engagement, as the coalition forces of Calfutrún, Rengue, and Baigorria swarmed the camp, The then soldier Donato Álvarez reportedly saved the unit's colors or provided critical cover for the wounded Lieutenant Colonel Ramon Bustos. Because of his "gallant behavior" and courage during this specific battle, he was promoted from the ranks. This served as a launching point for his long and distinguished career.
In the illustration of the famous Argentine military artist Eleodoro Marenco (And the AI recreation), a cuirassier officer of the "Libertad" Escort Battalion (Batallon Escolta Libertad). This battalion was Rosas's guard, however it participated in several border campaigns, as is the case of the battle of Tapalque under the orders of the then Lieutenant Colonel Ramón Bustos, who was at the same time one of the aide-de-camps of Juan Manuel de Rosas.
Killed in the Villamaryor massacre of 1956 along with Colonel Jerónimo Costa and others, Colonel Ramon Bustos has no tomb or portrait (He also did not have children). Although he has a great record of service and battles.
Killed in the Villamaryor massacre of 1956 along with Colonel Jerónimo Costa and others, Colonel Ramon Bustos has no tomb or portrait (He also did not have children). Although he has a great record of service and battles.
Battle of Quebracho Herrado 1840 by Artist Carlos Morel.
Battle of Famaillá september 1841, Lithography Author Anonymus (Left); Battle of Arroyo Grande 1842 by Artist Carlos Descalzo (Right).
During the battle, the Unitarian Lieutenant-General Juan Esteban Pedernera (Left) challenged Federal Colonel Hilario Lagos; chief of the right wing of General Manuel Oribe's troops; (Right) to a duel that never occurred. This practice of dueling between military chiefs was apparently common. In 1833 Colonel Hilario Lagos dueled with Indian cacique chief Pitriloncoy en Choele Choel, defeating him to take the strategic island.
This Colonel Hilario Lagos was the protagonist in many adventures. Curiously, his son followed his career and came to be a general. They shared the same name, which causes some confusion.
This Colonel Hilario Lagos was the protagonist in many adventures. Curiously, his son followed his career and came to be a general. They shared the same name, which causes some confusion.
Battle of Catamarca, october 1841.
1837 - 1838 war with the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation
As part of the War between the Confederation Peru - Bolivia vs. Chile and its Peruvian partners who opposed the confederation between their country and Bolivia; A new front of war was produced between the Peru- Bolivia Confederation against Argentina, which was at that time in war against France and its allies Argentine Unitarians. The most important reason why they went to war was for the annexation of the region of Tarija to Bolivia, (Former Argentina Province of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata) and due to the Peruvian -Bolivian support to the argentine unitarians during the Civil War. Both confederations found themselves in wars on other fronts, for this reason they had limited military resources. Juan Manuel de Rosas request the command of the General Heredia to the organization. Heredia counted with forces from the northern provinces . On the side of the Peru- Bolivia, General Santa Cruz assigned to General Otto Philipp Braun (who stood out in this conflict), to carry out the offensive. Braun at the inactivity of the Gral Heredia, decided to move to invading the northern provinces. This war was a military victory for Otto Braun forces over Alejandro Heredia. But Argentina kept the Northern Provinces of Salta and Jujuy, although it was not possible to recover the former argentine province of Tarija; whose inhabitants chose to be part of Bolivia. Among a series of battles of this war, the combat in Montenegro was a great victory for the forces of Otto Braun:
Combats of Humauaca and Santa Barbara: Between 12 and 13 September 1837 Colonel Felipe Heredia forces defeat forefront of Otto Braun. Combat of Vicuñay (Puna): December 11 1837, Argentine forces get another victory.
On November 17, 1837 the Chilean forces under General Blanco Encalada in Arequipa were surrounded and were forced to withdraw by a peace agreement "that was not to be definitive but temporary. This gave an opportunity to Santa Cruz to send reinforcements to Otto Braun and continue to advance in Argentine territory, making Argentine troops withdraw.
On January 2, 1838 an Argentine detachment captured a detachment of Braun in a battle called "Combat Corner of Casillas."
That night near there, in a place known as "Negra Muerta", two Bolivian forces in a mountain area, fought each other by mistake
Colonel Gregorio Paz recuperated San Antonio de los Cobres. The Argentine Colonel Mateo Rios moved from Oran to Iruya Argentina and Lieutenant Colonel Baca attacked to drive back Otto Braun. Chile, having unknown previous Peace treaty with Peru-Bolivia, back to the War. This meant reducing the chances of General Otto Braun may have more resources to invade northern provinces. But Argentina also fought on another front against the French fleet of Admiral Leblanc.
Alejandro Heredia was able to form an army of three divisions: 1 under General Manuel Virto who was to advance along the gorge of Humauaca move towards Iriuya and cut off the retreat of Braun; 2 General Gregorio Paz who should fill Tarija, and approach Chuquisaca; 3 And finally the German General Paul would become the rearguard. June 5, 1838 Andres de Santa Cruz sent to Napoleon Bonetti to reach an agreement with General Alejandro Heredia; saving a second front, at the back of Chileans to war. The problem with Bonetti, was that it was an Argentine unitarian exiliden in Bolivia and declared a fugitive in Argentina. Heredia did not recognize his diplomatic immunity and imprisoned him. General Santa Cruz called for the immediate release of Bonetti. Given the negative of Heredia, Santa Cruz would continue the offensive.
The Argentine general Gregorio Paz began the march on April 27, 1838 from Humahuaca, marching around the area jungles of Yungas and Chaco. May 29 the"Combat of Acambuco Lagoon" was fought and Argentine forces entered Bolivian territory, taking the town of Carapari. The July 3, 1838 the General Gregorio Paz gets the victories of "Combat Zapatera and San Diego" entering the Province of Tarija. On June 9 the Combat "El Pajonal" occurs. In the "Combat of Montenegro" Braun destroyed the rear of General Paz, who had approached Tarija; and forced him to start his retreat. The column of General Manuel Virto, after attempting to take the city of Iruya, also had to retire. The August 22, 1838, Brigadier General Alejandro Heredia ordered the retreat to Jujuy.
Combats of Humauaca and Santa Barbara: Between 12 and 13 September 1837 Colonel Felipe Heredia forces defeat forefront of Otto Braun. Combat of Vicuñay (Puna): December 11 1837, Argentine forces get another victory.
On November 17, 1837 the Chilean forces under General Blanco Encalada in Arequipa were surrounded and were forced to withdraw by a peace agreement "that was not to be definitive but temporary. This gave an opportunity to Santa Cruz to send reinforcements to Otto Braun and continue to advance in Argentine territory, making Argentine troops withdraw.
On January 2, 1838 an Argentine detachment captured a detachment of Braun in a battle called "Combat Corner of Casillas."
That night near there, in a place known as "Negra Muerta", two Bolivian forces in a mountain area, fought each other by mistake
Colonel Gregorio Paz recuperated San Antonio de los Cobres. The Argentine Colonel Mateo Rios moved from Oran to Iruya Argentina and Lieutenant Colonel Baca attacked to drive back Otto Braun. Chile, having unknown previous Peace treaty with Peru-Bolivia, back to the War. This meant reducing the chances of General Otto Braun may have more resources to invade northern provinces. But Argentina also fought on another front against the French fleet of Admiral Leblanc.
Alejandro Heredia was able to form an army of three divisions: 1 under General Manuel Virto who was to advance along the gorge of Humauaca move towards Iriuya and cut off the retreat of Braun; 2 General Gregorio Paz who should fill Tarija, and approach Chuquisaca; 3 And finally the German General Paul would become the rearguard. June 5, 1838 Andres de Santa Cruz sent to Napoleon Bonetti to reach an agreement with General Alejandro Heredia; saving a second front, at the back of Chileans to war. The problem with Bonetti, was that it was an Argentine unitarian exiliden in Bolivia and declared a fugitive in Argentina. Heredia did not recognize his diplomatic immunity and imprisoned him. General Santa Cruz called for the immediate release of Bonetti. Given the negative of Heredia, Santa Cruz would continue the offensive.
The Argentine general Gregorio Paz began the march on April 27, 1838 from Humahuaca, marching around the area jungles of Yungas and Chaco. May 29 the"Combat of Acambuco Lagoon" was fought and Argentine forces entered Bolivian territory, taking the town of Carapari. The July 3, 1838 the General Gregorio Paz gets the victories of "Combat Zapatera and San Diego" entering the Province of Tarija. On June 9 the Combat "El Pajonal" occurs. In the "Combat of Montenegro" Braun destroyed the rear of General Paz, who had approached Tarija; and forced him to start his retreat. The column of General Manuel Virto, after attempting to take the city of Iruya, also had to retire. The August 22, 1838, Brigadier General Alejandro Heredia ordered the retreat to Jujuy.
Brigadier General Alejandro Heredia (Right) and his brother Colonel Felipe Heredia (Left). Photo: Revisionistas
1838 - 1840 Conflict with France
trom the clash between Federals and Unitarians (supported by France), a war between the Argentina Confederation and the France of Luis Philippe D'Orleans occurs.
The reason was a result of the military service system of the Confederation of Argentina. This law included, in case of a general mobilization against an invasion, that foreign residents could be recruited, with the exception of British subjects who were exempted from serving for the British recognition of Argentine independence. Unlike France, the monarchy (Charles X), had family ties with the Spanish monarchy of Fernando VII and therefore did not recognize the independence of former Spanish colonies. France demanded the same treatment and, due to the refusal of the Argentine authorities, began the French naval blockade of Argentine ports. In 1929 under the command of François Marie Cornette de Venancourt, the French fleet attacked a division of the fleet moored in port, which was then commanded by Tomas Espora.
The French blockade activated numerous revolutionary movements, opponents of the Confederation Argentina, in the provinces and in the Banda Oriental (Uruguay). Alongside the French fleet operating off the coast of Magdalena; In Atalaya a landing attempt was rejected. To carry out the actions, the French naval chief asked the government of Montevideo (Oribe) to convert its ports to a naval base for France. Given the refusal of Oribe (White Party Allied Buenos Aires), France began to militarily support the enemies (Colorado Party) of this in Uruguay, until Oribe's defeat. Rivera was installed in Montevideo with French support and formed an alliance with the Argentine Unitarians to separate the Provinces of the Litoral in the Argentine Confederation. Rosas sent Admiral Brown in support of Oribe. In Entre Rios the Federal governor Pascual Echague and Lavalleja (Uruguay), Rivera defeats, while 4000 Unitarian troops from the Province of Corrientes under General Lavalle embark on French ships to surround Buenos Aires, actions that will be unsuccessful without popular support.
The cause was that the General Lavalle (Argentine Unitarian) and Rivera (Uruguay Colorado), virtually became part of landing operations in the fleet of Counter-Admiral Luis Francisco Leblanc, causing rejection in the population.
The French support was also extended to geopolitical rivals of Buenos Aires, if the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation of General Andres de Santa Cruz, leading to a war between this and the Confederation Argentina. At the same time, France stars in her first intervention in Mexico. For the internal enemies of the Argentine Confederation, French support was counterproductive, since the French armed intervention caused indignation and popular support to the Federal Government of Rosas. The attempt failed, the Mackau-Arana treaty ended the long blockade.
The reason was a result of the military service system of the Confederation of Argentina. This law included, in case of a general mobilization against an invasion, that foreign residents could be recruited, with the exception of British subjects who were exempted from serving for the British recognition of Argentine independence. Unlike France, the monarchy (Charles X), had family ties with the Spanish monarchy of Fernando VII and therefore did not recognize the independence of former Spanish colonies. France demanded the same treatment and, due to the refusal of the Argentine authorities, began the French naval blockade of Argentine ports. In 1929 under the command of François Marie Cornette de Venancourt, the French fleet attacked a division of the fleet moored in port, which was then commanded by Tomas Espora.
The French blockade activated numerous revolutionary movements, opponents of the Confederation Argentina, in the provinces and in the Banda Oriental (Uruguay). Alongside the French fleet operating off the coast of Magdalena; In Atalaya a landing attempt was rejected. To carry out the actions, the French naval chief asked the government of Montevideo (Oribe) to convert its ports to a naval base for France. Given the refusal of Oribe (White Party Allied Buenos Aires), France began to militarily support the enemies (Colorado Party) of this in Uruguay, until Oribe's defeat. Rivera was installed in Montevideo with French support and formed an alliance with the Argentine Unitarians to separate the Provinces of the Litoral in the Argentine Confederation. Rosas sent Admiral Brown in support of Oribe. In Entre Rios the Federal governor Pascual Echague and Lavalleja (Uruguay), Rivera defeats, while 4000 Unitarian troops from the Province of Corrientes under General Lavalle embark on French ships to surround Buenos Aires, actions that will be unsuccessful without popular support.
The cause was that the General Lavalle (Argentine Unitarian) and Rivera (Uruguay Colorado), virtually became part of landing operations in the fleet of Counter-Admiral Luis Francisco Leblanc, causing rejection in the population.
The French support was also extended to geopolitical rivals of Buenos Aires, if the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation of General Andres de Santa Cruz, leading to a war between this and the Confederation Argentina. At the same time, France stars in her first intervention in Mexico. For the internal enemies of the Argentine Confederation, French support was counterproductive, since the French armed intervention caused indignation and popular support to the Federal Government of Rosas. The attempt failed, the Mackau-Arana treaty ended the long blockade.
French attack on the island of Martin Garcia:
One of the most heroic feats of this war between Argentina and the United Confederation of France took place on the strategic island of Martin Garcia. 110 Argentines resisted for hours during the attack on 8 boats, 40 artillery pieces, and 500 troops. It cost Geronimo Costa's men 25 deaths and 50 for Daquenet's.
The island was defended by 110 men under the command of the chief of the Patricios Regiment Colonel Jerónimo Costa. Added to these forces was Captain Juan Bautista Thorne, Goleta Sarandi commander, sent to reinforce the small garrison artillery. The trenches were not completed and the 12 guns were not properly mounted.
On October 10, a fleet of eight ships, four French and four supporters of Rivera, appeared before Martin Garcia with Daguenet suggesting that Costa surrender. After consulting with his officers, Costa refused, replying that "I just have to say that according to my duty, I am willing to hold the honor of the nation to which I belong."
On October 11, 1838 ships with 40 cannons, maintained a heavy bombardment on the position. At the end of the day and covered by artillery Allied forces landed about 500 people (150 of them Uruguayan under the command of the Italian captain Sciurano Santiago, alias Chentopé, head of Squadron Rivera), who stormed the position in three columns.
Despite the effective resistance of Costa and his men, the position was taken and the defender taken prisoner. Costa was always remembered for his heroism on Martin Garcia.
The island was defended by 110 men under the command of the chief of the Patricios Regiment Colonel Jerónimo Costa. Added to these forces was Captain Juan Bautista Thorne, Goleta Sarandi commander, sent to reinforce the small garrison artillery. The trenches were not completed and the 12 guns were not properly mounted.
On October 10, a fleet of eight ships, four French and four supporters of Rivera, appeared before Martin Garcia with Daguenet suggesting that Costa surrender. After consulting with his officers, Costa refused, replying that "I just have to say that according to my duty, I am willing to hold the honor of the nation to which I belong."
On October 11, 1838 ships with 40 cannons, maintained a heavy bombardment on the position. At the end of the day and covered by artillery Allied forces landed about 500 people (150 of them Uruguayan under the command of the Italian captain Sciurano Santiago, alias Chentopé, head of Squadron Rivera), who stormed the position in three columns.
Despite the effective resistance of Costa and his men, the position was taken and the defender taken prisoner. Costa was always remembered for his heroism on Martin Garcia.
Costa Brava (Brown defeats Garibaldi - 15 and August 16, 1842).
Battle of "India Muerta" 1845.
Left: "Historia del Ejercito de Uruguay"; Right: "Batallas que hicieron historia" by Alberto del Pino Menck. Note the forage cap in crimmson color (Carmesi/Grana).
Battle of Vuelta de Obligado. Parana River. November 20, 1845
Left: French Admiral François Thomas Tréhouart. Center: The Anglo-French squadron (11 Warship). Right: General Lucio Mansilla.
François Thomas Tréhouart (27 April 1798 - 8 November 1873) was a French admiral, notable as the last holder to date of the rank of Admiral of France, to which he was appointed on 20 February 1869. He was a recipient of the grand cross of the Order of Isabella II.
Rear Admiral Samuel Hood Inglefield CB (1783–1848) was a Royal Navy officer who went on to be Commander in-Chief, East Indies and China Station. Promoted to rear admiral in 1841,he was appointed Commander-in-Chief on the Brazils and River Plate station at a time when Uruguayan Civil War was underway. Inglefield took decisive action at this time to keep the Paraná River open so ensuring continuity of trade. He became Commander in-Chief, East Indies and China Station in 1846 and died while still serving in that role in 1848. Wikipedia.
François Thomas Tréhouart (27 April 1798 - 8 November 1873) was a French admiral, notable as the last holder to date of the rank of Admiral of France, to which he was appointed on 20 February 1869. He was a recipient of the grand cross of the Order of Isabella II.
Rear Admiral Samuel Hood Inglefield CB (1783–1848) was a Royal Navy officer who went on to be Commander in-Chief, East Indies and China Station. Promoted to rear admiral in 1841,he was appointed Commander-in-Chief on the Brazils and River Plate station at a time when Uruguayan Civil War was underway. Inglefield took decisive action at this time to keep the Paraná River open so ensuring continuity of trade. He became Commander in-Chief, East Indies and China Station in 1846 and died while still serving in that role in 1848. Wikipedia.
The naval Battle of Vuelta de Obligado took place on the waters of the Paraná
River on November 20, 1845, between the Argentine Confederation, under the
leadership of Juan Manuel de Rosas, and an Anglo-French fleet.
2nd Batallion "Patricios of Obligado", Reenactment Group from Argentina. The Tower rifle is authentic, captured to The British Army in 1807 and used in the Battle of Obligado in 1845. Many thanks to Oscar Turone who presides over the group.
June 4. 1846. Battle of Quebracho.
Oil of Felix Revol preserved in the Historical Museum of Santa Fe with the image of General Pascual Echagüe, governor of the province to the time of the battle of Quebracho in June 1846. Photo: ellitoral.com
May 1, 1851 Urquiza's pronouncement and the Oriental Front.
Antique painting by the famous Uruguayan painter Manuel Blanes of General Oribe inspecting the federal troops. These troops were used in campaign both in Argentine territory as well as Uruguayan. For nine years took siege on the city of Montevideo, starting in February 16, 1843, with around 3,430 soldiers and 29 pieces of artillery. Interestingly, the opposing forces besieged in Montevideo had between 7,000 and 8,000 men.
General Oribe Army:
Division General Diaz
Voluntarios Rebajados (War Veterans) y Escolta Oriental, Colonel Joaquin Ramiro.
Batallon Libertad (Oriental) Colonel Lasala.
Batallon "Defensores de la Libertad" ( plus 1 Artillery Battery) Colonel Mariano Maza.
Batallon Independencia (Oriental) Colonel Mario Rincon.
Batallon "Defensores de la Independencia" Colonel Geronimo Costa.
Batallon "Libres Voluntarios" de Buenos Aires Colonel Pedro Ramos.
Batallon Escolta Colonel Ramon Bustos and one company of the Restaurador Batallion,
Batallon Patricios 3 and Guardia del Monte; Colonel Cesario Dominguez.
Cavalry Units. Colonel Julian Ciriaco Sosa.
Artillery 20 pieces y and congreve rockets.
Division General Diaz
Voluntarios Rebajados (War Veterans) y Escolta Oriental, Colonel Joaquin Ramiro.
Batallon Libertad (Oriental) Colonel Lasala.
Batallon "Defensores de la Libertad" ( plus 1 Artillery Battery) Colonel Mariano Maza.
Batallon Independencia (Oriental) Colonel Mario Rincon.
Batallon "Defensores de la Independencia" Colonel Geronimo Costa.
Batallon "Libres Voluntarios" de Buenos Aires Colonel Pedro Ramos.
Batallon Escolta Colonel Ramon Bustos and one company of the Restaurador Batallion,
Batallon Patricios 3 and Guardia del Monte; Colonel Cesario Dominguez.
Cavalry Units. Colonel Julian Ciriaco Sosa.
Artillery 20 pieces y and congreve rockets.
In 1851 when Urquiza, (until then a Rosas General, commander of the Federal divisions of the province of Entre Rios) goes to the enemy side, it crosses into Uruguay with the aim of forcing Oribe to end the siege of Montevideo and grab the Argentine Federal Forces. Oribe Federal troops become trapped between his enemies in Montevideo, and the forces of Urquiza. Deprived of reinforcements and provisions, since the naval forces of England and France took the Admiral Brown fleet of the Confederation Argentina in 1845, there were not many options. Oribe gathered his commanders to decide whether to fight two fronts, or reach an agreement with Urquiza. Oribe offers the withdrawal of Argentine troops along with the return of their artillery to Buenos Aires by sea.
Urquiza rejects the offer demanding that he be handed the Argentine battalions along with their artillery, ammunition, and weapons. Oribe with Uruguayan officials ultimately accepted; the exceptions were the heads of Argentine battalions Colonel Bustos, Mariano Maza, Pedro Ramos, Geronimo Costa and José María Flores who embark to Buenos Aires leaving their respective battalions.
Abandoned, the Argentine battalions were surrounded by Uruguayan battalions and forced to surrender their weapons. These federal battalions were forced to move to camps where General Urquiza reorganized them by assigning them to enemy officers (Unitarianists or Unitarians).
Urquiza rejects the offer demanding that he be handed the Argentine battalions along with their artillery, ammunition, and weapons. Oribe with Uruguayan officials ultimately accepted; the exceptions were the heads of Argentine battalions Colonel Bustos, Mariano Maza, Pedro Ramos, Geronimo Costa and José María Flores who embark to Buenos Aires leaving their respective battalions.
Abandoned, the Argentine battalions were surrounded by Uruguayan battalions and forced to surrender their weapons. These federal battalions were forced to move to camps where General Urquiza reorganized them by assigning them to enemy officers (Unitarianists or Unitarians).
General Manuel Oribe and General Antonio Diaz
Passage of Tonelero. December 17. 1851
December 17. 1851. Passage of Tonelero. Left: John Pascoe Grenfell. Center Combat of Tonelero 1851. Right: General Lucio Mansilla. Photo: The Passage of Tonelero by Eduardo de Martino. Wikipedia.
In the context of the war against Rosas and Oribe (1850-1852), December 17, 1851, Brazil's imperial vessels successfully passed the fortifications of Tonelero in the Acevedo gorge, Argentina. Defended by the troops of the Confederation Argentina who were in a fortified position on the right bank of the river Parana. According to Brazilian sources, they described this position as a set of batteries of artillery and fortifications, with a force of two thousand men under the command of General Lucio Norberto Mansilla, and sixteen pieces of artillery.
This defense was raised as a result of the determination of Juan Manuel de Rosas to carry out a political project of reconstruction of the old Argentine Viceroyalty of La Plata (comprising the territories of Argentina, Uruguay and
Paraguay), to which the Empire of Brazil opposed.
Attacked by the Imperial Navy of Brazil under the command of Admiral John Pascoe Grenfell:
Steamboat Dom Alfonzo commanded by Captain Frigate Jesuíno Lamego Costa (future Baron de Laguna).
Steamboat "Dom Pedro II" commanded by Captain Joaquim Raymond of Lamara.
Steamboat "Recife" commanded by Captain Antonio Francisco da hair Paixão.
"Dom Alfonso" commanded by Capt. Jose Barbosa Vitorio Lomba.
The corvette Dona Francisca commanded by Captain Guilherme Parker.
The "União", commanded by Captain Francisco Vieira Rocha.
'Calliope' to commanded by the First Lieutenant Cordeiro Torres e Alvim.
Wikipedia.
This defense was raised as a result of the determination of Juan Manuel de Rosas to carry out a political project of reconstruction of the old Argentine Viceroyalty of La Plata (comprising the territories of Argentina, Uruguay and
Paraguay), to which the Empire of Brazil opposed.
Attacked by the Imperial Navy of Brazil under the command of Admiral John Pascoe Grenfell:
Steamboat Dom Alfonzo commanded by Captain Frigate Jesuíno Lamego Costa (future Baron de Laguna).
Steamboat "Dom Pedro II" commanded by Captain Joaquim Raymond of Lamara.
Steamboat "Recife" commanded by Captain Antonio Francisco da hair Paixão.
"Dom Alfonso" commanded by Capt. Jose Barbosa Vitorio Lomba.
The corvette Dona Francisca commanded by Captain Guilherme Parker.
The "União", commanded by Captain Francisco Vieira Rocha.
'Calliope' to commanded by the First Lieutenant Cordeiro Torres e Alvim.
Wikipedia.
Naval Forces: Empire of Brazil Fleet. Under Command of Admiral John Pascoe Grenfell.
In the campaign strategy in Brazil. Caxias drew up the plan of the campaign: the
allied forces would go up the river Parana to the most convenient point of
landing to march against the forces of Rosas. Part of the Brazilian fleet would
be in Colonia do Sacramento, in front of Buenos Aires in the case of a need to
threaten the capital Buenos Aires, if Rosas opposed resistance. In compliance
with the Plan de Caxias, a squadron under the command of Grenfell forced the
fortified passage in Tonelero (under General Mansilla of the Argentine Confederation). The allied army landed in Diamante Harbor and met
the forces of Rosas.
July 9, 1851 - The last military parade of the Day of the Independence of the Army of the Argentine Confederation in Buenos Aires.
This valuable article was written in 1920 for "Caras y Caretas" by Pastor "S" (Servando) Obligado, son of former Rosas supporter Pastor Obligado. If the text in Caras y Caretas describes events of July 1851 in the first person or with a level of detail that suggests maturity, it cannot have been written at that time by the son, Pastor Servando Obligado, who was born in October 1841 and would have been only 9 years old. However, the author of the 1920 note is indeed the son, but in his role as a "traditionist".
In his famous series Tradiciones Argentinas, he often used a narrative style that felt "eyewitness," even when describing events that happened before he was born or while he was a small child. He relied on the extensive archives and personal stories of his father, Governor Pastor Obligado.
The July 1851 date the text refers to the historical turning point (near the end of the Rosas era). He is describing the world of his father's generation through the lens of a historian. He was considered the "living memory" of Buenos Aires. At nearly 80 years old, he was romanticizing the mid-19th century for a modern 20th-century audience who had forgotten what a pantalón cribado even looked like.
In his famous series Tradiciones Argentinas, he often used a narrative style that felt "eyewitness," even when describing events that happened before he was born or while he was a small child. He relied on the extensive archives and personal stories of his father, Governor Pastor Obligado.
The July 1851 date the text refers to the historical turning point (near the end of the Rosas era). He is describing the world of his father's generation through the lens of a historian. He was considered the "living memory" of Buenos Aires. At nearly 80 years old, he was romanticizing the mid-19th century for a modern 20th-century audience who had forgotten what a pantalón cribado even looked like.
Like many of the "Generación del 37," his father transitioned from the federalist orbit of Juan Manuel de Rosas to becoming a leading figure in the opposition that built the modern Argentine state.
The transition of Pastor Obligado (the father) is indeed a classic example of political survival among the 19th-century Argentine elite. Despite his public support for the Rosas regime, he was appointed as a provincial circuit judge the very day after Rosas was overthrown in 1852.
Pastor Obligado (the father) played a central and controversial role in one of the most ruthless episodes of the post-Rosas era: the execution of Colonel Jerónimo Costa and Colonel Ramón Bustos in 1856.
The controversial arrest of Antonino Reyes on the orders of another "ex-supporter and official of Rosas.":
Lorenzo Torres and Pastor Obligado are indeed parallel figures highly educated legal minds who served as pillars of the Rosas administration only to become the architects of the new order immediately after his fall.
As a top advisor and minister to Rosas, Torres was a key figure in the Federalist regime. However, he managed to pivot so effectively after the Battle of Caseros that he was kept in high-ranking positions by the new authorities.
Reyes was detained without a specific warrant for a concrete crime at the exact moment of his capture; he was arrested simply for being Rosas’s right-hand man and the chief of the Santos Lugares camp.
Antonino Reyes was heavily scrutinized and legally accused for his role in the 1848 execution of Camila O'Gorman and Ladislao Gutiérrez during his trial in the 1850s. As the commander of the Santos Lugares prison where the execution took place, he was viewed by his political opponents (including the administration of Pastor Obligado) as a primary agent of the Rosas regime's brutality.
The transition of Pastor Obligado (the father) is indeed a classic example of political survival among the 19th-century Argentine elite. Despite his public support for the Rosas regime, he was appointed as a provincial circuit judge the very day after Rosas was overthrown in 1852.
Pastor Obligado (the father) played a central and controversial role in one of the most ruthless episodes of the post-Rosas era: the execution of Colonel Jerónimo Costa and Colonel Ramón Bustos in 1856.
The controversial arrest of Antonino Reyes on the orders of another "ex-supporter and official of Rosas.":
Lorenzo Torres and Pastor Obligado are indeed parallel figures highly educated legal minds who served as pillars of the Rosas administration only to become the architects of the new order immediately after his fall.
As a top advisor and minister to Rosas, Torres was a key figure in the Federalist regime. However, he managed to pivot so effectively after the Battle of Caseros that he was kept in high-ranking positions by the new authorities.
Reyes was detained without a specific warrant for a concrete crime at the exact moment of his capture; he was arrested simply for being Rosas’s right-hand man and the chief of the Santos Lugares camp.
Antonino Reyes was heavily scrutinized and legally accused for his role in the 1848 execution of Camila O'Gorman and Ladislao Gutiérrez during his trial in the 1850s. As the commander of the Santos Lugares prison where the execution took place, he was viewed by his political opponents (including the administration of Pastor Obligado) as a primary agent of the Rosas regime's brutality.
9 de Julio was not a street in the mid-19th century. Construction on the famous wide avenue only began in 1937. In 1851, that area was a dense grid of narrow colonial streets.
The Salute to Pacheco: General Ángel Pacheco was Rosas's most brilliant military commander, and his house was indeed a landmark of status. It was located at the intersection of San Martín and Florida (the Palacio Pacheco), which was a hub for the Buenos Aires elite.
By placing the parade on "9 de Julio" (the ultimate symbol of modern Argentina) and having Rosas salute Pacheco, Obligado Jr. is likely collapsing time. He is projecting the grandeur of the 1920s city back onto the 1850s to make the "tradition" feel more epic and relatable to his Caras y Caretas readers.
That historical context makes the "honor salute" described by Pastor Servando Obligado even more fascinating and likely more ironic or pointed than a simple romantic gesture.
By July 1851, the political atmosphere in Buenos Aires was suffocating with suspicion. Justo José de Urquiza had issued his Pronunciamiento in May, and Rosas was hyper-aware that his top military commanders were being courted by the rebellion.
Rosas had received intelligence that Pacheco was in contact with Urquiza’s agents. Pacheco, the hero of the Desert Campaign and arguably the most prestigious general in the Confederation, was disillusioned with the endless war against Montevideo and the isolation of the country.By the time the troops were parading in mid-1851, Pacheco was already exhibiting "diplomatic illness" or tactical delays, eventually resigning his command of the Northern Frontier just before the final showdown at Caseros.
The Federal Princess
Manuelita Rosas acted as the public face of the government. In 1851, the same year she was famously painted by Prilidiano Pueyrredón, she was frequently seen on the balconies of the Plaza de Mayo, specifically at the Riglos house (located near the Police Department). This scene vividly captures the dual reality of the Rosista regime in July 1851: the public pageantry of Manuelita in the city center and the private, increasingly isolated life of Rosas in his Palermo residence.
If the scene Obligado Jr. describes actually took place, Rosas’s order to salute Pacheco’s house was likely not a tribute of affection, but a public "marking" of territory. In the logic of Rosas’s psychological warfare, honoring a suspected traitor in front of the troops was a way to force Pacheco into a public display of loyalty and show the public that the "Supreme Chief" was still in control of his generals.
The Private Military Parade at Palermo
In that article there is a very interesting part that lays bare the intimate path of the "Restaurador". It is the part where the troops of Colonel Juan José Luciano Hernández return to their barracks (Division )Palermo, and Rosas with his aides hurries to take a seat on the roof of his residence in Palermo to see the parade.
Manuelita was in the Plaza de Mayo on the balcony of Riglos next to the police department. His presence was public. But when Rozas takes advantage of the return of Hernández's troops to Palermo, he sits on his rooftop to watch the parade, almost no doubt with his unrecognized children, especially with Angela (El Soldadito) and Ermilio "El Coronel" who loved the army.
Angela and Ermilio were taken by Rosas to witness the battle of Caseros, where their biological father immediately ordered the evacuation of their children for safety. But for those children Caseros was not the last battle; Ermilio would die like canon fodder in the Paraguayan War, while Angela and the rest of her siblings were in another battle but legal. The defining moment in the Rosas family legacy, occurring long after the dictator's death in exile. In 1886, the children of Eugenia Castro filed a lawsuit in the courts of Buenos Aires to be recognized as Juan Manuel de Rosas's heirs and to claim a portion of his estate.
Manuelita Rosas successfully defeated this claim, effectively winning the legal battle to remain the sole legitimate representative of her father’s legacy.
Manuelita Rosas and her biological brother Juan Bautista had complex, evolving relationships with their half-siblings, transitioning from close familial bonds during their father's reign to distance and denial after his fall.
Manuelita, known as the "universal intercessor" for her diplomatic role in her father's government, initially maintained a very warm and integrated relationship with the Castro Rosas children. Also Manuelita was a "faithful friend" to María Eugenia Castro, the mother of her half-siblings, who lived in the family residence at Palermo.
During the peak of Rosas's power, Manuelita treated the Castro Rosas children as her own brothers and sisters. She lived with them, shared family moments, and was a maternal figure to the younger ones.
After Rosas was overthrown in 1852 and exiled to England, the dynamic changed drastically. When the "bastard" children later attempted to claim a share of the Rosas inheritance, Manuelita reportedly ignored their claims, dismissing them as merely the "children of a house servant" to protect the primary family's legal interests and her own inheritance.
Emilio (Sometimes Ermilio) Castro Rosas served in the Argentine Army during the War of the Triple Alliance (Paraguayan War) and lost his life in the Battle of Yatay on August 17, 1865. He was a member of the Argentine contingent sent to repel the Paraguayan invasion of Corrientes and Rio Grande do Sul (Ex-Misiones Orientales).
While specific battalion assignments for the Castro Rosas siblings are often grouped in broader regimental records, he served under the command of General Venancio Flores and Bartolomé Mitre.
The Salute to Pacheco: General Ángel Pacheco was Rosas's most brilliant military commander, and his house was indeed a landmark of status. It was located at the intersection of San Martín and Florida (the Palacio Pacheco), which was a hub for the Buenos Aires elite.
By placing the parade on "9 de Julio" (the ultimate symbol of modern Argentina) and having Rosas salute Pacheco, Obligado Jr. is likely collapsing time. He is projecting the grandeur of the 1920s city back onto the 1850s to make the "tradition" feel more epic and relatable to his Caras y Caretas readers.
That historical context makes the "honor salute" described by Pastor Servando Obligado even more fascinating and likely more ironic or pointed than a simple romantic gesture.
By July 1851, the political atmosphere in Buenos Aires was suffocating with suspicion. Justo José de Urquiza had issued his Pronunciamiento in May, and Rosas was hyper-aware that his top military commanders were being courted by the rebellion.
Rosas had received intelligence that Pacheco was in contact with Urquiza’s agents. Pacheco, the hero of the Desert Campaign and arguably the most prestigious general in the Confederation, was disillusioned with the endless war against Montevideo and the isolation of the country.By the time the troops were parading in mid-1851, Pacheco was already exhibiting "diplomatic illness" or tactical delays, eventually resigning his command of the Northern Frontier just before the final showdown at Caseros.
The Federal Princess
Manuelita Rosas acted as the public face of the government. In 1851, the same year she was famously painted by Prilidiano Pueyrredón, she was frequently seen on the balconies of the Plaza de Mayo, specifically at the Riglos house (located near the Police Department). This scene vividly captures the dual reality of the Rosista regime in July 1851: the public pageantry of Manuelita in the city center and the private, increasingly isolated life of Rosas in his Palermo residence.
If the scene Obligado Jr. describes actually took place, Rosas’s order to salute Pacheco’s house was likely not a tribute of affection, but a public "marking" of territory. In the logic of Rosas’s psychological warfare, honoring a suspected traitor in front of the troops was a way to force Pacheco into a public display of loyalty and show the public that the "Supreme Chief" was still in control of his generals.
The Private Military Parade at Palermo
In that article there is a very interesting part that lays bare the intimate path of the "Restaurador". It is the part where the troops of Colonel Juan José Luciano Hernández return to their barracks (Division )Palermo, and Rosas with his aides hurries to take a seat on the roof of his residence in Palermo to see the parade.
Manuelita was in the Plaza de Mayo on the balcony of Riglos next to the police department. His presence was public. But when Rozas takes advantage of the return of Hernández's troops to Palermo, he sits on his rooftop to watch the parade, almost no doubt with his unrecognized children, especially with Angela (El Soldadito) and Ermilio "El Coronel" who loved the army.
Angela and Ermilio were taken by Rosas to witness the battle of Caseros, where their biological father immediately ordered the evacuation of their children for safety. But for those children Caseros was not the last battle; Ermilio would die like canon fodder in the Paraguayan War, while Angela and the rest of her siblings were in another battle but legal. The defining moment in the Rosas family legacy, occurring long after the dictator's death in exile. In 1886, the children of Eugenia Castro filed a lawsuit in the courts of Buenos Aires to be recognized as Juan Manuel de Rosas's heirs and to claim a portion of his estate.
Manuelita Rosas successfully defeated this claim, effectively winning the legal battle to remain the sole legitimate representative of her father’s legacy.
Manuelita Rosas and her biological brother Juan Bautista had complex, evolving relationships with their half-siblings, transitioning from close familial bonds during their father's reign to distance and denial after his fall.
Manuelita, known as the "universal intercessor" for her diplomatic role in her father's government, initially maintained a very warm and integrated relationship with the Castro Rosas children. Also Manuelita was a "faithful friend" to María Eugenia Castro, the mother of her half-siblings, who lived in the family residence at Palermo.
During the peak of Rosas's power, Manuelita treated the Castro Rosas children as her own brothers and sisters. She lived with them, shared family moments, and was a maternal figure to the younger ones.
After Rosas was overthrown in 1852 and exiled to England, the dynamic changed drastically. When the "bastard" children later attempted to claim a share of the Rosas inheritance, Manuelita reportedly ignored their claims, dismissing them as merely the "children of a house servant" to protect the primary family's legal interests and her own inheritance.
Emilio (Sometimes Ermilio) Castro Rosas served in the Argentine Army during the War of the Triple Alliance (Paraguayan War) and lost his life in the Battle of Yatay on August 17, 1865. He was a member of the Argentine contingent sent to repel the Paraguayan invasion of Corrientes and Rio Grande do Sul (Ex-Misiones Orientales).
While specific battalion assignments for the Castro Rosas siblings are often grouped in broader regimental records, he served under the command of General Venancio Flores and Bartolomé Mitre.
Forced Recruitment and "Social Cleansing" . While his words are often dismissed as a product of their time, Sarmiento’s "gaucho blood" letter remains as controversial today as it was in 1861, primarily because it laid the ideological groundwork for a version of Argentina that excluded large segments of its own population.
Brazil was the primary military and financial driver of the war. Argentina and Uruguay, though critical to the political start of the conflict, became secondary in scale as the years dragged on.
The "Triple" in Triple Alliance quickly became lopsided after the initial year of the war. By late 1867, Brazil provided over 80% of the Allied troops. While Argentina's President Bartolomé Mitre was the initial supreme commander, Brazilian generals like the Duke of Caxias took full control as the war moved deep into Paraguayan territory.
Argentina's Internal Issues
Argentina’s participation was limited by the internal civil wars and uprisings. Many Argentine provinces resisted the war, forcing the government to keep troops at home to maintain order. By 1867, there were roughly 6,000 Argentines at the front compared to over 45,000 Brazilians.
Uruguay's participation is often described as "token". They entered with fewer than 2,000 men and had only around 500 soldiers left at the front toward the end of the conflict.
Brazil was the primary military and financial driver of the war. Argentina and Uruguay, though critical to the political start of the conflict, became secondary in scale as the years dragged on.
The "Triple" in Triple Alliance quickly became lopsided after the initial year of the war. By late 1867, Brazil provided over 80% of the Allied troops. While Argentina's President Bartolomé Mitre was the initial supreme commander, Brazilian generals like the Duke of Caxias took full control as the war moved deep into Paraguayan territory.
Argentina's Internal Issues
Argentina’s participation was limited by the internal civil wars and uprisings. Many Argentine provinces resisted the war, forcing the government to keep troops at home to maintain order. By 1867, there were roughly 6,000 Argentines at the front compared to over 45,000 Brazilians.
Uruguay's participation is often described as "token". They entered with fewer than 2,000 men and had only around 500 soldiers left at the front toward the end of the conflict.
The Battle of Yatay
This was the first major land battle of the war fought on Argentine soil. Emilio was one of the many young soldiers who fell during the intense combat near the Yatay stream (Near Paso de los Libres), in the Corrientes province.
Like many young men of his time, Emilio Castro Rosas was caught in a war where enthusiasm was low and resistance to joining was high. The Mitre administration faced significant internal opposition and had to rely on forced levies to maintain its ranks.
From his exile in Southampton, Rosas viewed the war with deep bitterness. Having spent his career fighting for Argentine sovereignty and resisting Brazilian influence, he saw the Triple Alliance as a betrayal where Argentina had indeed become a pawn of the Empire of Brazil.
It remains one of the great ironies of that era that the son of the "Restorer of the Laws" who had once claimed Paraguay as a "rebel province" of Argentina died fighting a war that helped solidify the very regional order his father had spent a lifetime opposing.
The death of Emilio at the Battle of Yatay in 1865 serves as a stark symbol of how the "gaucho blood" mentioned by Sarmiento was ultimately spent in a conflict that many, including his own father, believed served foreign interests more than Argentine ones.
In his letters from exile in Southampton, Rosas consistently used the phrase "God has willed to take him; His will be done" when discussing Emilio’s death at the Battle of Yatay. He framed the loss as a divine trial, maintaining the stoic, pious image he cultivated in his later years.
In his last testament (written in 1870), Rosas included a section acknowledging his children with María Eugenia Castro. Though he refers to Emilio as deceased, he ensures that the memory of his children whom he often addressed by military nicknames like "The Colonel" is formally recorded, even if they were legally barred from his primary surname.
His most intimate reflections on the war and the fate of his sons are found in his letters to Josefa Gómez, a loyal friend in Buenos Aires. Through these, he expressed his heartbreak at seeing the "gaucho blood" he valued being squandered by his political enemies.
This was the first major land battle of the war fought on Argentine soil. Emilio was one of the many young soldiers who fell during the intense combat near the Yatay stream (Near Paso de los Libres), in the Corrientes province.
Like many young men of his time, Emilio Castro Rosas was caught in a war where enthusiasm was low and resistance to joining was high. The Mitre administration faced significant internal opposition and had to rely on forced levies to maintain its ranks.
From his exile in Southampton, Rosas viewed the war with deep bitterness. Having spent his career fighting for Argentine sovereignty and resisting Brazilian influence, he saw the Triple Alliance as a betrayal where Argentina had indeed become a pawn of the Empire of Brazil.
It remains one of the great ironies of that era that the son of the "Restorer of the Laws" who had once claimed Paraguay as a "rebel province" of Argentina died fighting a war that helped solidify the very regional order his father had spent a lifetime opposing.
The death of Emilio at the Battle of Yatay in 1865 serves as a stark symbol of how the "gaucho blood" mentioned by Sarmiento was ultimately spent in a conflict that many, including his own father, believed served foreign interests more than Argentine ones.
In his letters from exile in Southampton, Rosas consistently used the phrase "God has willed to take him; His will be done" when discussing Emilio’s death at the Battle of Yatay. He framed the loss as a divine trial, maintaining the stoic, pious image he cultivated in his later years.
In his last testament (written in 1870), Rosas included a section acknowledging his children with María Eugenia Castro. Though he refers to Emilio as deceased, he ensures that the memory of his children whom he often addressed by military nicknames like "The Colonel" is formally recorded, even if they were legally barred from his primary surname.
His most intimate reflections on the war and the fate of his sons are found in his letters to Josefa Gómez, a loyal friend in Buenos Aires. Through these, he expressed his heartbreak at seeing the "gaucho blood" he valued being squandered by his political enemies.
Don Eusebio (often called Eusebio de la Santa Federación) was indeed a central fixture in Rosas’s court, serving as a "loco de la casa" or official buffoon who lived as a member of the inner circle. Eusebio was far from just a clown; he was a former soldier who reportedly suffered neurological damage while protecting Rosas in battle. Instead of abandoning him, Rosas brought him into the residence and gave him a "persona" to use against political rivals.
Rosas frequently dressed Eusebio in extravagant general's uniforms sometimes even as an "Ambassador" or an "Episcopal Bishop" to mock foreign diplomats or Unitarian prisoners.
While historical records focus on his public role in ridiculing enemies, the domestic reality of Palermo suggests he would have been a constant presence for Ángela, Ermilio, and the other children of Eugenia Castro. To them, Eusebio wasn't a political statement; he was likely a beloved, eccentric companion who brought a sense of play to the otherwise rigid and paranoid atmosphere of the residence.
Rosas frequently dressed Eusebio in extravagant general's uniforms sometimes even as an "Ambassador" or an "Episcopal Bishop" to mock foreign diplomats or Unitarian prisoners.
While historical records focus on his public role in ridiculing enemies, the domestic reality of Palermo suggests he would have been a constant presence for Ángela, Ermilio, and the other children of Eugenia Castro. To them, Eusebio wasn't a political statement; he was likely a beloved, eccentric companion who brought a sense of play to the otherwise rigid and paranoid atmosphere of the residence.
This is the central contradiction in the works of Pastor Servando Obligado (the son). By writing in the style of Bartolomé Mitre the architect of the "Black Legend" of Rosas he was essentially performing a literary "cleansing" of his own family history. By describing the Rosista army as "soulless," "grotesque," or a collection of "automatons," he was portraying the regime as a monstrous anomaly, he makes his father’s transition to the Unitarian side look like an "awakening" or a rescue of the state, rather than a calculated political pivot.
It is evident that the criticism of Rosas made by his own supporters was the wear and tear of the war.
By the winter of 1851, the strategic situation for Rosas was dire. The troops parading through the city were indeed a desperate collection of Young men and city dwellers pressed into service with little training. Gauchos from the Buenos Aires countryside who lacked the professional discipline of the frontier veterans.Older men and local police forces who were ill equipped for a major campaign.
For years, the best of the Confederation's infantry and cavalry were tied up in the "Great War" in Uruguay. In mid-1851, Justo José de Urquiza crossed into Uruguay. Instead of fighting, the veteran army under Manuel Oribe capitulated in October 1851.
Thousands of these seasoned soldiers didn't just surrender; they were incorporated into Urquiza's "Ejército Grande" to fight against their former leader.
The troops that paraded in the rain in July 1851 were largely conscripts. At the Battle of Caseros, they faced the seasoned veterans of Urquiza’s Ejército Grande. Lacking the "soul" or military conviction that Obligado Jr. mocked, many of these men realized the regime was over and fled the field, leading to the rapid collapse of the Rosista defense.
After Caseros, these same men were re-enrolled this time under the command of the Autonomist and Liberal elite (including Pastor Obligado as Governor and Bartolomé Mitre as a rising military leader).
Mitre understood that Buenos Aires could only dominate the Confederation if it had a disciplined, centralized force. He took the "raw material" of the old Rosista militias and began a process of modernization and Europeanization.
Battle of Pavón (1861). This "new" army eventually defeated Urquiza’s forces, effectively ending the Confederation’s challenge to Buenos Aires' hegemony.
The term "Unitarian" was associated with the old, defeated elites of the 1820s and the "Barbarism" vs. "Civilization" divide that had alienated the provinces. To rule the whole country, they needed a framework that sounded inclusive.
They adopted a Federal Constitution (1853/60) but interpreted it in a way that ensured Buenos Aires remained the "head" of the body. By controlling the National Army (the one forged in the Triple Alliance War) and the National Treasury, they could impose a centralized will while technically calling it a "Federal" government.
Mitre used this new "war machine" to crush the provincial caudillos (like El Chacho Peñaloza and Felipe Varela) who actually believed in true, decentralized federalism. They used "Federal" laws to justify "Interventions" sending the central army into provinces to remove governors they didn't like.
That is, after the battle of Caseros, Pastor Obligado and other Federalists tried to go over to the Unitarian side, but Mitre and other Unitarians argued that they offered reform Federalism.
Federalism without Rosas: Men like Pastor Obligado (the father) and Lorenzo Torres knew that as former Rosistas, they were "tainted." To survive, they attempted to out-Unitarian the Unitarians. They became the most radical hawks in the Separatist State of Buenos Aires, pushing for a total break from Urquiza’s Confederation. They were trying to "launder" their past by being more aggressive against the provinces than the exiles were.
Unitarianism without Lavalle: Bartolomé Mitre and the younger generation of exiles returning from Montevideo (the "true" Unitarians) realized that "Unitarianism" was a dead brand. It smelled of 1820s failure. They argued that if Buenos Aires wanted to rule Argentina, it couldn't do so by force as a "Unitary" capital (which had failed before). Instead, they decided to "Federalize the Revolution." They took the shell of the Federal system which the provinces loved and filled it with Buenos Aires’ institutional power.
1820 - 1880. Civilization vs. Barbarism" and the demographic suicide.
1868 Election (Conservatives vs Liberals): Ex-Unitarians and Ex-Federalists unite politically to be defeated in the elections by Sarmiento at the head of the Liberals.
It is evident that the criticism of Rosas made by his own supporters was the wear and tear of the war.
By the winter of 1851, the strategic situation for Rosas was dire. The troops parading through the city were indeed a desperate collection of Young men and city dwellers pressed into service with little training. Gauchos from the Buenos Aires countryside who lacked the professional discipline of the frontier veterans.Older men and local police forces who were ill equipped for a major campaign.
For years, the best of the Confederation's infantry and cavalry were tied up in the "Great War" in Uruguay. In mid-1851, Justo José de Urquiza crossed into Uruguay. Instead of fighting, the veteran army under Manuel Oribe capitulated in October 1851.
Thousands of these seasoned soldiers didn't just surrender; they were incorporated into Urquiza's "Ejército Grande" to fight against their former leader.
The troops that paraded in the rain in July 1851 were largely conscripts. At the Battle of Caseros, they faced the seasoned veterans of Urquiza’s Ejército Grande. Lacking the "soul" or military conviction that Obligado Jr. mocked, many of these men realized the regime was over and fled the field, leading to the rapid collapse of the Rosista defense.
After Caseros, these same men were re-enrolled this time under the command of the Autonomist and Liberal elite (including Pastor Obligado as Governor and Bartolomé Mitre as a rising military leader).
Mitre understood that Buenos Aires could only dominate the Confederation if it had a disciplined, centralized force. He took the "raw material" of the old Rosista militias and began a process of modernization and Europeanization.
Battle of Pavón (1861). This "new" army eventually defeated Urquiza’s forces, effectively ending the Confederation’s challenge to Buenos Aires' hegemony.
The term "Unitarian" was associated with the old, defeated elites of the 1820s and the "Barbarism" vs. "Civilization" divide that had alienated the provinces. To rule the whole country, they needed a framework that sounded inclusive.
They adopted a Federal Constitution (1853/60) but interpreted it in a way that ensured Buenos Aires remained the "head" of the body. By controlling the National Army (the one forged in the Triple Alliance War) and the National Treasury, they could impose a centralized will while technically calling it a "Federal" government.
Mitre used this new "war machine" to crush the provincial caudillos (like El Chacho Peñaloza and Felipe Varela) who actually believed in true, decentralized federalism. They used "Federal" laws to justify "Interventions" sending the central army into provinces to remove governors they didn't like.
That is, after the battle of Caseros, Pastor Obligado and other Federalists tried to go over to the Unitarian side, but Mitre and other Unitarians argued that they offered reform Federalism.
Federalism without Rosas: Men like Pastor Obligado (the father) and Lorenzo Torres knew that as former Rosistas, they were "tainted." To survive, they attempted to out-Unitarian the Unitarians. They became the most radical hawks in the Separatist State of Buenos Aires, pushing for a total break from Urquiza’s Confederation. They were trying to "launder" their past by being more aggressive against the provinces than the exiles were.
Unitarianism without Lavalle: Bartolomé Mitre and the younger generation of exiles returning from Montevideo (the "true" Unitarians) realized that "Unitarianism" was a dead brand. It smelled of 1820s failure. They argued that if Buenos Aires wanted to rule Argentina, it couldn't do so by force as a "Unitary" capital (which had failed before). Instead, they decided to "Federalize the Revolution." They took the shell of the Federal system which the provinces loved and filled it with Buenos Aires’ institutional power.
1820 - 1880. Civilization vs. Barbarism" and the demographic suicide.
1868 Election (Conservatives vs Liberals): Ex-Unitarians and Ex-Federalists unite politically to be defeated in the elections by Sarmiento at the head of the Liberals.
February 3, 1852. Battle of Caseros:
