Spanish Burgundy Cross Flag. Cruz de Borgoña/Aspa de Borgoña
“Los reyes de España nos enseñaron a odiar bajo el nombre de extranjero, a todo el que no era español. Los libertadores de 1810, a su vez, nos enseñaron a detestar bajo el nombre de europeo a todo el que no había nacido en América”
"The Kings of Spain taught us to hate everyone who was not Spanish under the name of foreigner. The liberators of 1810, in turn, taught us to detest everyone who was not born in America under the name of European."
This quote by Juan Bautista Alberdi captures the identity crisis Latin American nations faced after gaining independence.
But Alberdi forgot that England was on the side of the Liberators of 1810 (independence), and that British legions and others foreigns fought side by side with Creoles against the Spaniards and Creole royalists.
Even worse (especially for Mitre who at that time was writing the official Argentine history). Because Alberdi, with that statement, placed the federal side as heir to the 1810 Liberators and the independence struggle (Vuelta de Obligado 1845).
In the case of the Río de la Plata, a civil war broke out after independence.
Unitarians (The Liberal Elite): Centralized in Buenos Aires, this group, including figures like Bernardino Rivadavia advocated for free trade and heavy British investment. They saw Europe (and specifically England) as the peak of "civilization" and often viewed the rural interior as "barbarism" that needed to be modernized, even if it meant economic dependency on foreign loans like the Baring Brothers loan of 1824.
During his 1839 campaign, Lavalle was significantly backed by the French fleet. The French provided transport, supplies, and strategic coordination, seeing the Unitarians as a way to install a government that would grant them "most favored nation" status and free navigation of the rivers.
The 1845 intervention saw British and French warships directly attacking Argentine defenses, most famously at the Battle of Vuelta de Obligado.
Foreign Legions. These conflicts involved diverse foreign units, including the "Italian Legion" led by Giuseppe Garibaldi
and various French and British volunteers who fought alongside the Unitarians and the Uruguayan Colorados.
Federals (The Traditionalists): Led by regional caudillos like Juan Manuel de Rosas, they sought to protect local industries in the provinces from being crushed by cheap British imports. They emphasized Hispanic and Catholic traditions over foreign secular ideals. The Federals, and especially Rosas, were accused of wanting to rebuild the territory of the former viceroyalty.
Even Alberdi did not know about the Monarchist Projects of the Liberators.
Belgrano’s "Carlotism" (1808–1810): Before the open revolution, Manuel Belgrano and a group of "Enlightened" criollos (the Carlotistas) supported Princess Carlota Joaquina sister of the captive King Ferdinand VII and wife of the King of Portugal to rule as a regent in Rio de la Plata. They saw this as a "bridge" to independence that would gain British and Portuguese support without a bloody war.
Belgrano’s "Inca Plan" (1816): At the Congress of Tucumán, Belgrano proposed a Constitutional Monarchy led by a descendant of the Sapa Inca. He argued this would unite the indigenous population of the Andes with the revolutionary cause and gain European recognition.
San Martín’s European King (1821–1822): José de San Martín was a staunch believer that South American societies were not ready for a republic and would fall into anarchy (civil war) without a stabilizing crown. As Protector of Peru, he sent a diplomatic mission to Europe to find a European prince to take a Peruvian throne. This was a major point of contention in his famous meeting with Simón Bolívar, who insisted on a republican system.
A central argument of the Revisionist school of history is that the independence movement was less an idealistic crusade for "freedom" and more a strategic pivot by the local Creole economic elite to bypass Madrid and trade directly with the global superpower of the time Great Britain
.
The "British Connection" Before 1810
Well before Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the economic foundations for independence were being laid through both legal and illegal trade.
After visiting the Río de la Plata and other colonies, Alessandro Malaspina (Malaspina's Expedition to the Rio de la Plata) realized that Spain's strict trade monopoly was unsustainable and actually fueled British influence. He warned the King that.
The colonies were already economically linked to Britain through contraband. He proposed transforming the empire into a confederation of free-trading states linked by commerce, regional social reforms rather than military force.
He saw the British establishment in New South Wales (Australia) as a strategic preliminary step for a future invasion of Spanish South America.
Instead of acting on his "Political Axioms," the Spanish court saw his progressive ideas as a threat to the absolutist monarchy. In 1795, shortly after his return, Malaspina was accused of plotting against the state and the powerful Prime Minister Manuel Godoy. Malaspina was stripped of his rank and imprisoned for nearly eight years in the fortress of San Antón.
Contraband as the Norm. Because the Spanish mercantilist system strictly banned trade with non-Spanish partners, a massive "black market" emerged. British merchants had been deeply embedded in the Río de la Plata for decades, often using the Portuguese colony of Colonia del Sacramento (modern-day Uruguay) as a smuggling hub to reach Buenos Aires.
A "New Merchant Bourgeoisie". By the late 18th century, a new class of Creole wholesale merchants (like the Sarratea, Escalada, and Rivadavia families) found their interests increasingly aligned with British capital. They viewed the Spanish monopoly as a "tax" that drained their profits to a declining empire.
The 1809 Legal Opening. Even before the official May Revolution, the pressure from this elite was so great that the Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros was forced to legalize direct trade with the British in November 1809 to avoid economic collapse. This was the "de facto" independence of the port of Buenos Aires.
The elite who funded the revolution were often the same people who benefited from British credit and finished goods. To them, "Liberty" meant the freedom to sell hides and tallow to London and buy British textiles without Spanish middlemen.
Alberdi’s Contradiction
By claiming the "libertadores" taught a hatred of Europeans, Alberdi ignores that the very leaders he admired were often trying to secure a British protectorate or a European king to ensure trade stability.
The Displacement of the Crown. In this view, 1810 wasn't a break from imperialism, but a change of masters from a politically dominant but economically weak Spain to an economically dominant Britain.
This perspective positions the Unitarians not as "enlightened" democrats, but as the commercial agents of an Atlantic trade network that prioritized the port of Buenos Aires over the development of the interior provinces.
Juan Bautista Alberdi is widely recognized as the "Father of the Argentine Constitution". His 1852 book, "Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina" (Bases and Starting Points for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic), served as the intellectual blueprint for the Constitution of 1853.
“Los reyes de España nos enseñaron a odiar bajo el nombre de extranjero, a todo el que no era español. Los libertadores de 1810, a su vez, nos enseñaron a detestar bajo el nombre de europeo a todo el que no había nacido en América”
"The Kings of Spain taught us to hate everyone who was not Spanish under the name of foreigner. The liberators of 1810, in turn, taught us to detest everyone who was not born in America under the name of European."
This quote by Juan Bautista Alberdi captures the identity crisis Latin American nations faced after gaining independence.
But Alberdi forgot that England was on the side of the Liberators of 1810 (independence), and that British legions and others foreigns fought side by side with Creoles against the Spaniards and Creole royalists.
Even worse (especially for Mitre who at that time was writing the official Argentine history). Because Alberdi, with that statement, placed the federal side as heir to the 1810 Liberators and the independence struggle (Vuelta de Obligado 1845).
In the case of the Río de la Plata, a civil war broke out after independence.
Unitarians (The Liberal Elite): Centralized in Buenos Aires, this group, including figures like Bernardino Rivadavia advocated for free trade and heavy British investment. They saw Europe (and specifically England) as the peak of "civilization" and often viewed the rural interior as "barbarism" that needed to be modernized, even if it meant economic dependency on foreign loans like the Baring Brothers loan of 1824.
During his 1839 campaign, Lavalle was significantly backed by the French fleet. The French provided transport, supplies, and strategic coordination, seeing the Unitarians as a way to install a government that would grant them "most favored nation" status and free navigation of the rivers.
The 1845 intervention saw British and French warships directly attacking Argentine defenses, most famously at the Battle of Vuelta de Obligado.
Foreign Legions. These conflicts involved diverse foreign units, including the "Italian Legion" led by Giuseppe Garibaldi
and various French and British volunteers who fought alongside the Unitarians and the Uruguayan Colorados.
Federals (The Traditionalists): Led by regional caudillos like Juan Manuel de Rosas, they sought to protect local industries in the provinces from being crushed by cheap British imports. They emphasized Hispanic and Catholic traditions over foreign secular ideals. The Federals, and especially Rosas, were accused of wanting to rebuild the territory of the former viceroyalty.
Even Alberdi did not know about the Monarchist Projects of the Liberators.
Belgrano’s "Carlotism" (1808–1810): Before the open revolution, Manuel Belgrano and a group of "Enlightened" criollos (the Carlotistas) supported Princess Carlota Joaquina sister of the captive King Ferdinand VII and wife of the King of Portugal to rule as a regent in Rio de la Plata. They saw this as a "bridge" to independence that would gain British and Portuguese support without a bloody war.
Belgrano’s "Inca Plan" (1816): At the Congress of Tucumán, Belgrano proposed a Constitutional Monarchy led by a descendant of the Sapa Inca. He argued this would unite the indigenous population of the Andes with the revolutionary cause and gain European recognition.
San Martín’s European King (1821–1822): José de San Martín was a staunch believer that South American societies were not ready for a republic and would fall into anarchy (civil war) without a stabilizing crown. As Protector of Peru, he sent a diplomatic mission to Europe to find a European prince to take a Peruvian throne. This was a major point of contention in his famous meeting with Simón Bolívar, who insisted on a republican system.
A central argument of the Revisionist school of history is that the independence movement was less an idealistic crusade for "freedom" and more a strategic pivot by the local Creole economic elite to bypass Madrid and trade directly with the global superpower of the time Great Britain
.
The "British Connection" Before 1810
Well before Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the economic foundations for independence were being laid through both legal and illegal trade.
After visiting the Río de la Plata and other colonies, Alessandro Malaspina (Malaspina's Expedition to the Rio de la Plata) realized that Spain's strict trade monopoly was unsustainable and actually fueled British influence. He warned the King that.
The colonies were already economically linked to Britain through contraband. He proposed transforming the empire into a confederation of free-trading states linked by commerce, regional social reforms rather than military force.
He saw the British establishment in New South Wales (Australia) as a strategic preliminary step for a future invasion of Spanish South America.
Instead of acting on his "Political Axioms," the Spanish court saw his progressive ideas as a threat to the absolutist monarchy. In 1795, shortly after his return, Malaspina was accused of plotting against the state and the powerful Prime Minister Manuel Godoy. Malaspina was stripped of his rank and imprisoned for nearly eight years in the fortress of San Antón.
Contraband as the Norm. Because the Spanish mercantilist system strictly banned trade with non-Spanish partners, a massive "black market" emerged. British merchants had been deeply embedded in the Río de la Plata for decades, often using the Portuguese colony of Colonia del Sacramento (modern-day Uruguay) as a smuggling hub to reach Buenos Aires.
A "New Merchant Bourgeoisie". By the late 18th century, a new class of Creole wholesale merchants (like the Sarratea, Escalada, and Rivadavia families) found their interests increasingly aligned with British capital. They viewed the Spanish monopoly as a "tax" that drained their profits to a declining empire.
The 1809 Legal Opening. Even before the official May Revolution, the pressure from this elite was so great that the Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros was forced to legalize direct trade with the British in November 1809 to avoid economic collapse. This was the "de facto" independence of the port of Buenos Aires.
The elite who funded the revolution were often the same people who benefited from British credit and finished goods. To them, "Liberty" meant the freedom to sell hides and tallow to London and buy British textiles without Spanish middlemen.
Alberdi’s Contradiction
By claiming the "libertadores" taught a hatred of Europeans, Alberdi ignores that the very leaders he admired were often trying to secure a British protectorate or a European king to ensure trade stability.
The Displacement of the Crown. In this view, 1810 wasn't a break from imperialism, but a change of masters from a politically dominant but economically weak Spain to an economically dominant Britain.
This perspective positions the Unitarians not as "enlightened" democrats, but as the commercial agents of an Atlantic trade network that prioritized the port of Buenos Aires over the development of the interior provinces.
Juan Bautista Alberdi is widely recognized as the "Father of the Argentine Constitution". His 1852 book, "Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina" (Bases and Starting Points for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic), served as the intellectual blueprint for the Constitution of 1853.
Napoleon’s 1808 invasion of Spain
Napoleon didn't just invade on a whim; he viewed Spain as a "failed state" that was dragging down his Continental System. To his strategic mind, the Spanish Bourbon monarchy was a dysfunctional mess that needed "modernizing" by force.
Napoleon’s 1808 invasion of Spain was the "spark" that unintendedly dismantled the Spanish Empire
. By deposing King Ferdinand VII and installing his brother Jose (Giuseppe) Bonaparte, Napoleon shattered the perceived legitimacy of the Crown, which was the only glue holding the viceroyalties together.
The abdications of Bayonne took place on 5 and 6 May 1808 in the French city of Bayonne. It is the name by which the successive renunciations of the throne by Ferdinand VII of Spain, who returned to his father the crown obtained with the mutiny of Aranjuez, and of Charles IV, who the day before had ceded these rights to the French emperor Napoleon.
This event, known as the Abdications of Bayonne (May 1808), was a masterclass in political manipulation that backfired and set the world on fire. By forcing both the father (Charles IV) and the son (Ferdinand VII) to sign away their rights, Napoleon created a power vacuum that changed history.
1. The Legal "Trick"
Napoleon invited them to France under the guise of mediating their family feud. He pressured Ferdinand to return the crown to his father, and then pressured Charles IV to cede all rights to Napoleon himself. Napoleon then "gifted" the throne to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte (nicknamed Pepe Botella by the Spanish).
2. The Birth of the "Juntas"
Because the Spanish people viewed Joseph I as an "Intruder King," they argued that in the absence of a legitimate monarch, sovereignty returned to the people. This led to the formation of local Juntas across Spain and America to rule in the name of the "Captive King" (Ferdinand VII).
3. The Spark for American Independence
This is the moment where the Spanish administration began to crumble:
The "Mask of Ferdinand": In cities like Buenos Aires (1810), local elites claimed they weren't rebelling against the King, but against the French-controlled government in Spain. This was a "legal mask" to start the path toward independence.
Loyalty to a Ghost: While they claimed loyalty to Ferdinand VII, they were actually practicing self-government. When Ferdinand eventually returned to the throne in 1813 and tried to act like an absolute monarch again, the American colonies—who had tasted 10% or more of true autonomy—refused to go back.
4. The "90/10" Connection
This chaos is why those Indigenist Royalists we discussed were so confused. They had sworn oaths to the Crown, but now there were two: the French one in Madrid and the "Juntas" in America. Many indigenous groups chose to stay loyal to the "idea" of the Spanish King because they trusted a distant monarch more than the local "Patriot" elites who were eager to take their land.
Napoleon didn't just invade on a whim; he viewed Spain as a "failed state" that was dragging down his Continental System. To his strategic mind, the Spanish Bourbon monarchy was a dysfunctional mess that needed "modernizing" by force.
Napoleon’s 1808 invasion of Spain was the "spark" that unintendedly dismantled the Spanish Empire
. By deposing King Ferdinand VII and installing his brother Jose (Giuseppe) Bonaparte, Napoleon shattered the perceived legitimacy of the Crown, which was the only glue holding the viceroyalties together.
The abdications of Bayonne took place on 5 and 6 May 1808 in the French city of Bayonne. It is the name by which the successive renunciations of the throne by Ferdinand VII of Spain, who returned to his father the crown obtained with the mutiny of Aranjuez, and of Charles IV, who the day before had ceded these rights to the French emperor Napoleon.
This event, known as the Abdications of Bayonne (May 1808), was a masterclass in political manipulation that backfired and set the world on fire. By forcing both the father (Charles IV) and the son (Ferdinand VII) to sign away their rights, Napoleon created a power vacuum that changed history.
1. The Legal "Trick"
Napoleon invited them to France under the guise of mediating their family feud. He pressured Ferdinand to return the crown to his father, and then pressured Charles IV to cede all rights to Napoleon himself. Napoleon then "gifted" the throne to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte (nicknamed Pepe Botella by the Spanish).
2. The Birth of the "Juntas"
Because the Spanish people viewed Joseph I as an "Intruder King," they argued that in the absence of a legitimate monarch, sovereignty returned to the people. This led to the formation of local Juntas across Spain and America to rule in the name of the "Captive King" (Ferdinand VII).
3. The Spark for American Independence
This is the moment where the Spanish administration began to crumble:
The "Mask of Ferdinand": In cities like Buenos Aires (1810), local elites claimed they weren't rebelling against the King, but against the French-controlled government in Spain. This was a "legal mask" to start the path toward independence.
Loyalty to a Ghost: While they claimed loyalty to Ferdinand VII, they were actually practicing self-government. When Ferdinand eventually returned to the throne in 1813 and tried to act like an absolute monarch again, the American colonies—who had tasted 10% or more of true autonomy—refused to go back.
4. The "90/10" Connection
This chaos is why those Indigenist Royalists we discussed were so confused. They had sworn oaths to the Crown, but now there were two: the French one in Madrid and the "Juntas" in America. Many indigenous groups chose to stay loyal to the "idea" of the Spanish King because they trusted a distant monarch more than the local "Patriot" elites who were eager to take their land.
Ferdinand VII returns the crown to his father Charles IV. Napoleon forces Charles IV to surrender his crown. Napoleon crowns his brother Joseph as the new King of Spain. Napoleon realized that by putting his brother on the throne in Madrid, he was accidentally creating a dozen new republics in the Americas.
Carlos IV "El Cazador" and Fernando VII "El Deseado".
Carlota Joaquina of Portugal was Carlos IV's daughter and sister of Fernando VII. She defended the crown of her father against her brother and she reclamed the Spanish Crown as the legit Queen.
Carlota Joaquina of Portugal was Carlos IV's daughter and sister of Fernando VII. She defended the crown of her father against her brother and she reclamed the Spanish Crown as the legit Queen.
Carlotism
After the Napoleonic invasion of Spain, King Don Ferdinand VII, Carlota's younger brother, was forced to abdicate the throne in favor of Joseph Bonaparte. The majority of Spaniards did not recognize him as a legitimate king, and Carlota, an ambitious woman, appeared to be a possible contender to claim the throne. At the time, Carlota was in the Americas following the transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil due to Napoleon's invasion of Portugal.
Carlota would reign over the Spanish colonies in the Río de la Plata, in opposition to the metropolis ruled by a Bonaparte. This movement, that took place between 1808 and 1812, became known as Carlotismo, a political movement aimed at establishing an independent monarchy in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, with Carlota Joaquina as its monarch.
Carlota would reign over the Spanish colonies in the Río de la Plata, in opposition to the metropolis ruled by a Bonaparte. This movement, that took place between 1808 and 1812, became known as Carlotismo, a political movement aimed at establishing an independent monarchy in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, with Carlota Joaquina as its monarch.
Carlota Joaquina was perhaps the most ambitious and politically sharp member of the Bourbon family during that era. While her father and brother were being manipulated by Napoleon in Bayonne, she was in Rio de Janeiro, having fled the French invasion of Portugal with her husband, the Prince Regent (later Dom João VI).
Her movement, known as Carlotism (el carlotismo), was a fascinating "what if" in history:
1. The "Regent of the Americas"
Since her father (Charles IV) and brother (Ferdinand VII) were prisoners of Napoleon, Carlota claimed she was the sole legitimate representative of the Spanish Bourbons who was still free. She attempted to be recognized as the Regent of Spanish America to prevent the colonies from falling to the French or descending into republican revolution.
2. The Civil War within the Family
She despised her brother Ferdinand VII for his coup against their father. Her goal was to preserve the entire Spanish Empire under her own administration until the "chaos" in Spain was resolved.
3. Support in the River Plate
She actually had significant support among some "Patriots" in Buenos Aires (like Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli). They saw a Monarchy under Carlota as a "middle way" a way to gain autonomy from Spain while maintaining a legitimate, royal head of state to avoid a bloody civil war.
4. Why it Failed
The British Factor: The British (who were allies of both Spain and Portugal) didn't want Carlota to become too powerful. They preferred the Spanish colonies to be open for trade rather than united under a strong Bourbon-Braganza queen.
Her Husband's Jealousy: Dom João VI feared that if his wife became Queen of Spanish America, it would threaten his own control over Brazil.
The Reality: Local elites in the Americas eventually realized that Carlota was just as much of an absolutist as her brother. They decided that if they were going to have a new government, they might as well run it themselves.
Carlota Joaquina remains one of the most controversial figures in the history of the ABC countries; she was a Spanish Infanta, a Portuguese Queen, and almost the first "Empress" of the Southern Cone.
Her movement, known as Carlotism (el carlotismo), was a fascinating "what if" in history:
1. The "Regent of the Americas"
Since her father (Charles IV) and brother (Ferdinand VII) were prisoners of Napoleon, Carlota claimed she was the sole legitimate representative of the Spanish Bourbons who was still free. She attempted to be recognized as the Regent of Spanish America to prevent the colonies from falling to the French or descending into republican revolution.
2. The Civil War within the Family
She despised her brother Ferdinand VII for his coup against their father. Her goal was to preserve the entire Spanish Empire under her own administration until the "chaos" in Spain was resolved.
3. Support in the River Plate
She actually had significant support among some "Patriots" in Buenos Aires (like Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli). They saw a Monarchy under Carlota as a "middle way" a way to gain autonomy from Spain while maintaining a legitimate, royal head of state to avoid a bloody civil war.
4. Why it Failed
The British Factor: The British (who were allies of both Spain and Portugal) didn't want Carlota to become too powerful. They preferred the Spanish colonies to be open for trade rather than united under a strong Bourbon-Braganza queen.
Her Husband's Jealousy: Dom João VI feared that if his wife became Queen of Spanish America, it would threaten his own control over Brazil.
The Reality: Local elites in the Americas eventually realized that Carlota was just as much of an absolutist as her brother. They decided that if they were going to have a new government, they might as well run it themselves.
Carlota Joaquina remains one of the most controversial figures in the history of the ABC countries; she was a Spanish Infanta, a Portuguese Queen, and almost the first "Empress" of the Southern Cone.
The Manifesto of Rio de Janeiro
In August 1808, Carlota Joaquina issued a manifesto from her exile in Brazil, addressing the "faithful subjects of the Spanish Monarchy" in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
The Claim: Since her father (Charles IV) and brother (Ferdinand VII) were prisoners of Napoleon, she asserted herself as the Regent and rightful heir to the Spanish dominions. She specifically sought to undermine Santiago de Liniers *, the French-born Viceroy of Buenos Aires. Because Liniers was French, Carlota and her supporters accused him of being a potential "traitor" or an agent of Napoleon.
September 11, in the manifesto of the Just Claim of Carlota Joaquina to various characters: Viceroy Liniers; the mayor of the first vote, Martín de Álzaga; the commander of the Patricios Regiment, Cornelio Saavedra; the advisor Juan de Almagro; Judge Anzoátegui; the secretary of the Consulate of Commerce of Buenos Aires, Manuel Belgrano; the priests Guerra and Sebastiani; the accountant Calderón; the head of customs; the military officers Gerardo Esteve y Llach, Martín Rodríguez, Pedro Cerviño, Núñez and Vivas; and several members of the cabildo. It was also addressed to Elío, the only recipient who did not reside in Buenos Aires.
In August 1808, Carlota Joaquina issued a manifesto from her exile in Brazil, addressing the "faithful subjects of the Spanish Monarchy" in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
The Claim: Since her father (Charles IV) and brother (Ferdinand VII) were prisoners of Napoleon, she asserted herself as the Regent and rightful heir to the Spanish dominions. She specifically sought to undermine Santiago de Liniers *, the French-born Viceroy of Buenos Aires. Because Liniers was French, Carlota and her supporters accused him of being a potential "traitor" or an agent of Napoleon.
September 11, in the manifesto of the Just Claim of Carlota Joaquina to various characters: Viceroy Liniers; the mayor of the first vote, Martín de Álzaga; the commander of the Patricios Regiment, Cornelio Saavedra; the advisor Juan de Almagro; Judge Anzoátegui; the secretary of the Consulate of Commerce of Buenos Aires, Manuel Belgrano; the priests Guerra and Sebastiani; the accountant Calderón; the head of customs; the military officers Gerardo Esteve y Llach, Martín Rodríguez, Pedro Cerviño, Núñez and Vivas; and several members of the cabildo. It was also addressed to Elío, the only recipient who did not reside in Buenos Aires.
The Response in Buenos Aires
The arrival of her proclamation created a deep split in the city's elite:
Viceroy Liniers' Reaction: Liniers officially rejected her claims, maintaining his loyalty to the Junta of Seville (the provisional government in Spain) and Ferdinand VII. However, his French heritage made him vulnerable to Carlota’s accusations.
However, not everyone in Buenos Aires rejected the invitation: on September 20, in a joint letter, Manuel Belgrano, Hipólito Vieytes, Juan José Castelli, Nicolás Rodríguez Peña, Antonio Luis Beruti and Miguel Mariano de Villegas, announced their adhesion to Princess Carlota Joaquina, rejoicing that, in the event that she assumed office in Buenos Aires
The Carlotista Party: A group of influential "Patriots," including Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli, saw Carlota as a strategic opportunity. They didn't necessarily want her as an absolute queen, but they believed her regency could provide a legal path to autonomy from Spain without a violent revolution.
The Cabildo Opposition: Most Spanish-born officials (Peninsulares) in the city council (Cabildo) were terrified of Carlota. They feared her husband, the Portuguese Prince Regent, would use her as a "Trojan Horse" to allow Portugal to annex the River Plate.
The arrival of her proclamation created a deep split in the city's elite:
Viceroy Liniers' Reaction: Liniers officially rejected her claims, maintaining his loyalty to the Junta of Seville (the provisional government in Spain) and Ferdinand VII. However, his French heritage made him vulnerable to Carlota’s accusations.
However, not everyone in Buenos Aires rejected the invitation: on September 20, in a joint letter, Manuel Belgrano, Hipólito Vieytes, Juan José Castelli, Nicolás Rodríguez Peña, Antonio Luis Beruti and Miguel Mariano de Villegas, announced their adhesion to Princess Carlota Joaquina, rejoicing that, in the event that she assumed office in Buenos Aires
The Carlotista Party: A group of influential "Patriots," including Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli, saw Carlota as a strategic opportunity. They didn't necessarily want her as an absolute queen, but they believed her regency could provide a legal path to autonomy from Spain without a violent revolution.
The Cabildo Opposition: Most Spanish-born officials (Peninsulares) in the city council (Cabildo) were terrified of Carlota. They feared her husband, the Portuguese Prince Regent, would use her as a "Trojan Horse" to allow Portugal to annex the River Plate.
Why It Failed
Despite her bold proclamation, the project collapsed because:
Her Absolutism: Carlota was a staunch believer in absolute monarchy, whereas her supporters in Buenos Aires wanted a constitutional monarchy.
British Interference: Britain, an ally to both Spain and Portugal, did not want a single Bourbon-Braganza power controlling all of South America.
Liniers' Popularity: Liniers was a hero for defeating the British invasions (1806–1807), making it difficult to depose him based on suspicion alone.
Despite her bold proclamation, the project collapsed because:
Her Absolutism: Carlota was a staunch believer in absolute monarchy, whereas her supporters in Buenos Aires wanted a constitutional monarchy.
British Interference: Britain, an ally to both Spain and Portugal, did not want a single Bourbon-Braganza power controlling all of South America.
Liniers' Popularity: Liniers was a hero for defeating the British invasions (1806–1807), making it difficult to depose him based on suspicion alone.
Manuel Belgrano and his circle (the Carlotistas) saw it as a brilliant "chess move." By swearing allegiance to Carlota Joaquina, they could effectively declare independence from the chaotic government in Spain while staying within the "legality" of the Bourbon family.
Liniers’ "French" Dilemma: Santiago de Liniers was in a terrible position. Although he had saved Buenos Aires from the British, his French blood made him a target for "spy" rumors. He rejected Carlota not just out of loyalty to Spain, but because accepting her would have meant Portuguese influence over the River Plate—something the people of Buenos Aires, who had fought the Portuguese for a century, would never accept.
Liniers’ "French" Dilemma: Santiago de Liniers was in a terrible position. Although he had saved Buenos Aires from the British, his French blood made him a target for "spy" rumors. He rejected Carlota not just out of loyalty to Spain, but because accepting her would have meant Portuguese influence over the River Plate—something the people of Buenos Aires, who had fought the Portuguese for a century, would never accept.
Ultimately, Liniers was replaced in 1809 by Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, the last Spanish viceroy, who arrived to restore official Spanish control just one year before the May Revolution of 1810 changed everything.
Liniers was the "Reconqueror" of Buenos Aires, a hero who had defeated two British invasions (1806–1807). However, his loyalty to the Spanish Crown remained absolute. When the May Revolution deposed Viceroy Cisneros on May 25, 1810, Liniers emerged from retirement in Córdoba to lead a royalist counter-revolution.
The newly formed Primera Junta in Buenos Aires viewed Liniers’ prestige as a mortal threat. They dispatched an army to crush his movement.
Liniers' improvised army deserted him before a single shot was fired. He was captured while trying to flee to Upper Peru.
The Junta, fearing that bringing the popular hero back to Buenos Aires as a prisoner would spark a riot, ordered his immediate execution.
The first commander, Francisco Ortiz de Ocampo, refused to shoot him out of respect for his past service.
The Junta replaced Ocampo with the radical Juan José Castelli, who carried out the sentence. On August 26, 1810, Liniers and four other royalist leaders were executed by firing squad at a place called Cabeza de Tigre.
Liniers was the "Reconqueror" of Buenos Aires, a hero who had defeated two British invasions (1806–1807). However, his loyalty to the Spanish Crown remained absolute. When the May Revolution deposed Viceroy Cisneros on May 25, 1810, Liniers emerged from retirement in Córdoba to lead a royalist counter-revolution.
The newly formed Primera Junta in Buenos Aires viewed Liniers’ prestige as a mortal threat. They dispatched an army to crush his movement.
Liniers' improvised army deserted him before a single shot was fired. He was captured while trying to flee to Upper Peru.
The Junta, fearing that bringing the popular hero back to Buenos Aires as a prisoner would spark a riot, ordered his immediate execution.
The first commander, Francisco Ortiz de Ocampo, refused to shoot him out of respect for his past service.
The Junta replaced Ocampo with the radical Juan José Castelli, who carried out the sentence. On August 26, 1810, Liniers and four other royalist leaders were executed by firing squad at a place called Cabeza de Tigre.
Spanish American wars of independence
After the Abdications of Bayonne and the installation of the Bonaparte dynasty on the Spanish throne, Napoleon, Emperor of the French, undertook to preserve the integrity of the Spanish Empire and tried to obtain recognition of his authority through commissioners sent to the American authorities, who were rejected everywhere, while annexing the Basque and Catalan territories to France.
From 1808, the land campaigns of the American War, due to the enormous geographical breadth of the monarchy's domains, took place in large areas of the continent, including territories such as Spanish Florida and various islands near the coast, such as Margarita Island or Chiloé in South America, as well as Galveston or Haiti in North America and the Caribbean. The Iberian Peninsula itself was also the scene of conflicts and mutinies, among which the rebellion of the great overseas expedition stands out.
The logistics of the expeditions and naval combats acquired a global scope, ranging from the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, through the Canary Islands and the ports of the Iberian Peninsula, to the Philippines. The corsairs operating from the ports of the United States were the most numerous, while the ports of the United Kingdom and Spain served as the starting point for the main European expeditions, both royalist and independent. The United States was the starting point for insurgent expeditions directed against Spanish Texas and Florida. The Banda Oriental was taken by the Portuguese-Brazilian Invasion, which consolidated the advance of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarve on the territory.
From a political point of view, the conflict combined a deep character of civil war with an international dimension, with the direct or indirect intervention of the main global powers. The official participation of European countries was limited to the defence of the Iberian Peninsula against the Napoleonic invasion and the restoration of absolutism with the return of Ferdinand VII to the throne. As far as the monarchy's American dominions were concerned, the foreign powers maintained an appearance of neutrality, although they allowed and even encouraged the activities of private companies dedicated to the hiring of mercenaries and foreign volunteers for the independence armies. Both the United Kingdom and the United States of America provided logistical support, facilitated the trade in arms and materiel, and authorized the departure of privateers and expeditionaries from their ports. In addition, both countries acted as the first powers to recognize, de facto or de jure, the new American states, thus consolidating their separation from the Spanish monarchy. On the naval level, the delivery of letters of marque in ports in various regions of America by both sides turned the sea into a globalized theater of conflict, with corsairs operating on behalf of the different factions throughout the length and breadth of the Spanish Empire and its maritime routes.
From 1808, the land campaigns of the American War, due to the enormous geographical breadth of the monarchy's domains, took place in large areas of the continent, including territories such as Spanish Florida and various islands near the coast, such as Margarita Island or Chiloé in South America, as well as Galveston or Haiti in North America and the Caribbean. The Iberian Peninsula itself was also the scene of conflicts and mutinies, among which the rebellion of the great overseas expedition stands out.
The logistics of the expeditions and naval combats acquired a global scope, ranging from the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, through the Canary Islands and the ports of the Iberian Peninsula, to the Philippines. The corsairs operating from the ports of the United States were the most numerous, while the ports of the United Kingdom and Spain served as the starting point for the main European expeditions, both royalist and independent. The United States was the starting point for insurgent expeditions directed against Spanish Texas and Florida. The Banda Oriental was taken by the Portuguese-Brazilian Invasion, which consolidated the advance of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarve on the territory.
From a political point of view, the conflict combined a deep character of civil war with an international dimension, with the direct or indirect intervention of the main global powers. The official participation of European countries was limited to the defence of the Iberian Peninsula against the Napoleonic invasion and the restoration of absolutism with the return of Ferdinand VII to the throne. As far as the monarchy's American dominions were concerned, the foreign powers maintained an appearance of neutrality, although they allowed and even encouraged the activities of private companies dedicated to the hiring of mercenaries and foreign volunteers for the independence armies. Both the United Kingdom and the United States of America provided logistical support, facilitated the trade in arms and materiel, and authorized the departure of privateers and expeditionaries from their ports. In addition, both countries acted as the first powers to recognize, de facto or de jure, the new American states, thus consolidating their separation from the Spanish monarchy. On the naval level, the delivery of letters of marque in ports in various regions of America by both sides turned the sea into a globalized theater of conflict, with corsairs operating on behalf of the different factions throughout the length and breadth of the Spanish Empire and its maritime routes.
The Lautaro Lodge
The Lautaro Lodge (Spanish: Logia Lautaro) named after the Araucanian chief Lautaro, it operated with strict secrecy and military discipline. Members were bound to support each other’s political careers and maintain absolute silence about the lodge's existence under penalty of death. was a secret revolutionary organization and semi-masonic society that played a pivotal role in the Latin American wars of independence during the early 19th century.
One of the most prominent leaders of the movement for independence, San Martín was initiated into the Lodge of Rational Knights in London in 1811 before co-founding the Lautaro Lodge in Buenos Aires in 1812. He used the lodge as a disciplined political and military pressure group to mobilize resources for his liberation campaigns in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.
Often referred to as "The Liberator," Bolívar was also a high-ranking Freemason, having been initiated in 1803 at a lodge in Cadiz, Spain. While both he and San Martín were connected through these networks, their 1822 Guayaquil Conference highlighted deep ideological differences: San Martín favored constitutional monarchies, whereas Bolívar supported republicanism.
In addition to San Martín and Bolívar, several other prominent revolutionary figures were key members or founders of the
Lautaro Lodge network:
Bernardo O’Higgins: A national hero of Chile and its first "Supreme Director". He was a close ally of San Martín and a member of both the European and South American branches of the lodge.
Francisco de Miranda: Often called the "Godfather of the Latin American Revolution," he founded the original Gran Reunión Americana in London, which served as the mother lodge for the Lautaro branches.
Carlos María de Alvear: A co-founder of the Buenos Aires lodge alongside San Martín and José Matías Zapiola. He later became the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata.
José Matías Zapiola: A naval officer and key co-founder of the Buenos Aires lodge. He survived into his 90s and provided historians with much of the primary information we have today about the lodge’s secret inner workings.
Juan Martín de Pueyrredón: A powerful political figure and member of the First Triumvirate of Argentina. As Supreme Director, he used the lodge as a "secret council" to coordinate government policy and military strategy with San Martín.
Antonio Nariño: A Colombian precursor to independence who was initiated into the original Cadiz branch of the lodge.
Francisco de Paula Santander: A key military and political leader in Gran Colombia who, like Bolívar, had ties to the lodge networks in Europe.
José Bernardo Monteagudo: A radical intellectual and strategist who worked closely with San Martín to organize lodge-backed political coups and was a member of the affiliated Patriotic Society.
The primary goal was the complete independence of South American colonies from the Spanish Crown.
The lodge functioned more as a political and ideological organization than a traditional social club, often controlling local governments to ensure the success of revolutionary goals.Brothers were obligated to assist each other in civilian and military life, ensuring that those in power followed the lodge’s collective decisions.
Jistorians frequently view the GOU (Grupo de Oficiales Unidos) of the 1940s as a modern analog to the Lautaro Lodge of the 19th century. While they operated in different eras, they shared structural and functional similarities as "secret military lodges" that shaped Argentine history from behind the scenes.
Differences between "lautaro Lodge" and the "GOU"
Ideology:
Lautaro Lodge: Focused on Liberalism and Enlightenment goals, seeking emancipation from the Spanish monarchy.
GOU: Rooted in Nationalism, anti-communism, and maintaining neutrality during WWII. Interestingly, despite using "masonic-style" secrecy, the GOU was staunchly anti-masonic.
Relation to Freemasonry:
The Lautaro Lodge used masonic rituals and was often considered a "revolutionary masonic lodge" (though some historians argue it was merely "para-masonic").
The GOU was an explicitly military secret society that viewed traditional Freemasonry with suspicion and hostility.
The Lautaro Lodge (Spanish: Logia Lautaro) named after the Araucanian chief Lautaro, it operated with strict secrecy and military discipline. Members were bound to support each other’s political careers and maintain absolute silence about the lodge's existence under penalty of death. was a secret revolutionary organization and semi-masonic society that played a pivotal role in the Latin American wars of independence during the early 19th century.
One of the most prominent leaders of the movement for independence, San Martín was initiated into the Lodge of Rational Knights in London in 1811 before co-founding the Lautaro Lodge in Buenos Aires in 1812. He used the lodge as a disciplined political and military pressure group to mobilize resources for his liberation campaigns in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.
Often referred to as "The Liberator," Bolívar was also a high-ranking Freemason, having been initiated in 1803 at a lodge in Cadiz, Spain. While both he and San Martín were connected through these networks, their 1822 Guayaquil Conference highlighted deep ideological differences: San Martín favored constitutional monarchies, whereas Bolívar supported republicanism.
In addition to San Martín and Bolívar, several other prominent revolutionary figures were key members or founders of the
Lautaro Lodge network:
Bernardo O’Higgins: A national hero of Chile and its first "Supreme Director". He was a close ally of San Martín and a member of both the European and South American branches of the lodge.
Francisco de Miranda: Often called the "Godfather of the Latin American Revolution," he founded the original Gran Reunión Americana in London, which served as the mother lodge for the Lautaro branches.
Carlos María de Alvear: A co-founder of the Buenos Aires lodge alongside San Martín and José Matías Zapiola. He later became the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata.
José Matías Zapiola: A naval officer and key co-founder of the Buenos Aires lodge. He survived into his 90s and provided historians with much of the primary information we have today about the lodge’s secret inner workings.
Juan Martín de Pueyrredón: A powerful political figure and member of the First Triumvirate of Argentina. As Supreme Director, he used the lodge as a "secret council" to coordinate government policy and military strategy with San Martín.
Antonio Nariño: A Colombian precursor to independence who was initiated into the original Cadiz branch of the lodge.
Francisco de Paula Santander: A key military and political leader in Gran Colombia who, like Bolívar, had ties to the lodge networks in Europe.
José Bernardo Monteagudo: A radical intellectual and strategist who worked closely with San Martín to organize lodge-backed political coups and was a member of the affiliated Patriotic Society.
The primary goal was the complete independence of South American colonies from the Spanish Crown.
The lodge functioned more as a political and ideological organization than a traditional social club, often controlling local governments to ensure the success of revolutionary goals.Brothers were obligated to assist each other in civilian and military life, ensuring that those in power followed the lodge’s collective decisions.
Jistorians frequently view the GOU (Grupo de Oficiales Unidos) of the 1940s as a modern analog to the Lautaro Lodge of the 19th century. While they operated in different eras, they shared structural and functional similarities as "secret military lodges" that shaped Argentine history from behind the scenes.
Differences between "lautaro Lodge" and the "GOU"
Ideology:
Lautaro Lodge: Focused on Liberalism and Enlightenment goals, seeking emancipation from the Spanish monarchy.
GOU: Rooted in Nationalism, anti-communism, and maintaining neutrality during WWII. Interestingly, despite using "masonic-style" secrecy, the GOU was staunchly anti-masonic.
Relation to Freemasonry:
The Lautaro Lodge used masonic rituals and was often considered a "revolutionary masonic lodge" (though some historians argue it was merely "para-masonic").
The GOU was an explicitly military secret society that viewed traditional Freemasonry with suspicion and hostility.
Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Maitland. (Scotland 10 March 1760). On the right Maitland meets Toussaint L'Ouverture (Haiti) to discuss the secret treaty. He was Governor of Malta, until his death on 17 January 1824. Maitland never married.
The Maitland Plan plan was created by Thomas Maitland in 1800 to disintegrate the bulk of the Spanish Empire in America. The plan was titled Plan to capture Buenos Aires and Chile, and then emancipate Peru and Quito. The plan was never formally implemented but it influenced the South American wars of independence.
Argentine historians like Rodolfo Terragno argue that San Martín was introduced to the Maitland Plan during his stay in London in 1811 by members of the Logia Lautaro.
The Maitland Plan plan was created by Thomas Maitland in 1800 to disintegrate the bulk of the Spanish Empire in America. The plan was titled Plan to capture Buenos Aires and Chile, and then emancipate Peru and Quito. The plan was never formally implemented but it influenced the South American wars of independence.
Argentine historians like Rodolfo Terragno argue that San Martín was introduced to the Maitland Plan during his stay in London in 1811 by members of the Logia Lautaro.
The British Legions
The British Legion were foreign volunteer units which fought under Simón Bolívar against Spain for the independence of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, and under José de San Martín for the independence of Peru, in the Spanish American wars of independence. Venezuelans generally called them the Albion Legion. They were composed of over seven thousand volunteers, mainly Napoleonic War veterans from Great Britain and Ireland, as well as some German veterans and some locals recruited after arriving in South America.
While the British Legions are most famously associated with Simón Bolívar in the north, José de San Martín also relied heavily on British military expertise, though it was organized differently.
Instead of large "legions" of infantry, San Martín’s British support was concentrated in naval power and individual officers integrated into his regular forces.
1. The Navy: Lord Cochrane and the British Sailors
San Martín’s most critical British "legion" was actually at sea. To liberate Peru, he needed to control the Pacific.
Lord Thomas Cochrane: A brilliant and disgraced British naval hero was hired to lead the Chilean Navy.
British Crews: The ships that transported San Martín’s army from Chile to Peru were manned largely by British officers and sailors who had been "demobilized" after the Napoleonic Wars. Without this "British fleet," the liberation of Peru would have been impossible.
2. Individual British Officers (The "Foreign Volunteers")
San Martín didn't have a separate "British Legion" unit like Bolívar’s Albion Battalion. Instead, he recruited British veterans directly into his Army of the Andes:
General William Miller: One of San Martín's most trusted commanders. He led the cavalry at the Battle of Ayacucho and was a key figure in the Peruvian campaign.
Colonel James Paroissien: A British medic and officer who became San Martín’s personal physician and Chief Surgeon of the Army of the Andes. He was later the first person to be granted Peruvian citizenship.
The "90/10" Factor: These British officers were essential for training the 10% indigenous and mestizo recruits in modern European infantry tactics and artillery.
3. Why the Difference?
Bolívar’s Strategy: In the north, the British Legions were organized as mercenary units (thousands of men) because Bolívar had a massive, open frontline and needed raw manpower.
San Martín’s Strategy: In the south, San Martín focused on precision and logistics. He preferred a smaller number of highly skilled British specialists (engineers, doctors, and naval commanders) to act as a "force multiplier" for his professional Argentine and Chilean troops.
4. The British Government’s Role
In both cases, the British Crown officially remained neutral to avoid war with Spain, but they "turned a blind eye" to the recruitment. This was a form of clandestine support—British veterans were allowed to leave for South America because their presence served British commercial interests in breaking the Spanish monopoly.
The British Legion were foreign volunteer units which fought under Simón Bolívar against Spain for the independence of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, and under José de San Martín for the independence of Peru, in the Spanish American wars of independence. Venezuelans generally called them the Albion Legion. They were composed of over seven thousand volunteers, mainly Napoleonic War veterans from Great Britain and Ireland, as well as some German veterans and some locals recruited after arriving in South America.
While the British Legions are most famously associated with Simón Bolívar in the north, José de San Martín also relied heavily on British military expertise, though it was organized differently.
Instead of large "legions" of infantry, San Martín’s British support was concentrated in naval power and individual officers integrated into his regular forces.
1. The Navy: Lord Cochrane and the British Sailors
San Martín’s most critical British "legion" was actually at sea. To liberate Peru, he needed to control the Pacific.
Lord Thomas Cochrane: A brilliant and disgraced British naval hero was hired to lead the Chilean Navy.
British Crews: The ships that transported San Martín’s army from Chile to Peru were manned largely by British officers and sailors who had been "demobilized" after the Napoleonic Wars. Without this "British fleet," the liberation of Peru would have been impossible.
2. Individual British Officers (The "Foreign Volunteers")
San Martín didn't have a separate "British Legion" unit like Bolívar’s Albion Battalion. Instead, he recruited British veterans directly into his Army of the Andes:
General William Miller: One of San Martín's most trusted commanders. He led the cavalry at the Battle of Ayacucho and was a key figure in the Peruvian campaign.
Colonel James Paroissien: A British medic and officer who became San Martín’s personal physician and Chief Surgeon of the Army of the Andes. He was later the first person to be granted Peruvian citizenship.
The "90/10" Factor: These British officers were essential for training the 10% indigenous and mestizo recruits in modern European infantry tactics and artillery.
3. Why the Difference?
Bolívar’s Strategy: In the north, the British Legions were organized as mercenary units (thousands of men) because Bolívar had a massive, open frontline and needed raw manpower.
San Martín’s Strategy: In the south, San Martín focused on precision and logistics. He preferred a smaller number of highly skilled British specialists (engineers, doctors, and naval commanders) to act as a "force multiplier" for his professional Argentine and Chilean troops.
4. The British Government’s Role
In both cases, the British Crown officially remained neutral to avoid war with Spain, but they "turned a blind eye" to the recruitment. This was a form of clandestine support—British veterans were allowed to leave for South America because their presence served British commercial interests in breaking the Spanish monopoly.
18th century. Ejercito de Ultramar (Spain's Overseas Army) or Bourbon Army.
The Spanish army in Spanish America (called the Overseas Army), during the 19th century, was actually the local militias that since the 18th century were in charge of the defense of the colonized regions for the Spanish Crown. To understand the 19th century, it is necessary to see that Latin America began the century under the system of the Bourbon Reforms, which sought to centralize power and improve tax collection. Just before the independences of the Americas, the Spanish administration divided the continent as follows:
The Spanish army in Spanish America (called the Overseas Army), during the 19th century, was actually the local militias that since the 18th century were in charge of the defense of the colonized regions for the Spanish Crown. To understand the 19th century, it is necessary to see that Latin America began the century under the system of the Bourbon Reforms, which sought to centralize power and improve tax collection. Just before the independences of the Americas, the Spanish administration divided the continent as follows:
The 4 Viceroyalties (Large political units)
They were the highest divisions, governed by a Viceroy who directly represented the King.
They were the highest divisions, governed by a Viceroy who directly represented the King.
Viceroyalty of New Spain: The richest and most extensive. It spanned from the southern U.S. to Central America (including the Philippines in Asia).
Viceroyalty of Peru: Originally the largest, but by the nineteenth century it had already been cut to create the other two in the south.
Viceroyalty of New Granada: (Created in 1717/1739). It included present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and part of Venezuela.
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata: (Created in 1776). With its capital in Buenos Aires, it included Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Upper Peru (Bolivia).
Viceroyalty of Peru: Originally the largest, but by the nineteenth century it had already been cut to create the other two in the south.
Viceroyalty of New Granada: (Created in 1717/1739). It included present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and part of Venezuela.
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata: (Created in 1776). With its capital in Buenos Aires, it included Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Upper Peru (Bolivia).
The 4 Captaincies General (Strategic Zones) They were territories of military or border importance. They had administrative and military autonomy with respect to the nearby viceroyalties due to their danger or remoteness.
Captaincy General of Cuba: It also administered Puerto Rico and Florida.
Captaincy General of Guatemala: It covered almost all of Central America and Chiapas.
Captaincy General of Venezuela: It was acquiring great autonomy from New Granada before independence.
Captaincy General of Chile: Formally dependent on Peru, but with a Captain General.
Captaincy General of Guatemala: It covered almost all of Central America and Chiapas.
Captaincy General of Venezuela: It was acquiring great autonomy from New Granada before independence.
Captaincy General of Chile: Formally dependent on Peru, but with a Captain General.
19th century. Ejercito Realista (Spain's Royalist Army in America).
The royalist army in America were the military forces organized during the Spanish-American wars of independence, with the aim of defending the political and territorial unity of the Spanish monarchy against the independence movements that emerged in the first third of the nineteenth century. It was a new and improvised army, different from both the peninsular Spanish army that confronted Napoleon and the one established overseas in the eighteenth century, whose forces were divided between the opposing sides (Hispanic Americans independence patriots vs Hispanic Americans royalists loyal to Spain). They were composed mostly of American troops – mainly indigenous – and for a time they received peninsular reinforcements
The royalist army was not the viceregal army of the Spanish Empire; it did not have the same mission or the organization that this army had during the time of the viceroyalties, which was aimed at defense against enemy powers from abroad. However, the viceregal army had a strong domestic, American character, made up of 80% local troops from the city, and officers based in the country, committed to the local elite.
The Bourbon army disappeared in Spain in 1808, and a totally new force was built during the peninsular war to confront Napoleon in Spain and serve overseas. At the beginning of the Spanish-American revolutions, the Spanish colonial army disintegrated and large sectors of it were integrated into the independence armies and depended on the American government juntas. The colonial battalions behaved according to the support of the local elites in favor of a Junta or the Viceroy.
The royalist army in America were the military forces organized during the Spanish-American wars of independence, with the aim of defending the political and territorial unity of the Spanish monarchy against the independence movements that emerged in the first third of the nineteenth century. It was a new and improvised army, different from both the peninsular Spanish army that confronted Napoleon and the one established overseas in the eighteenth century, whose forces were divided between the opposing sides (Hispanic Americans independence patriots vs Hispanic Americans royalists loyal to Spain). They were composed mostly of American troops – mainly indigenous – and for a time they received peninsular reinforcements
The royalist army was not the viceregal army of the Spanish Empire; it did not have the same mission or the organization that this army had during the time of the viceroyalties, which was aimed at defense against enemy powers from abroad. However, the viceregal army had a strong domestic, American character, made up of 80% local troops from the city, and officers based in the country, committed to the local elite.
The Bourbon army disappeared in Spain in 1808, and a totally new force was built during the peninsular war to confront Napoleon in Spain and serve overseas. At the beginning of the Spanish-American revolutions, the Spanish colonial army disintegrated and large sectors of it were integrated into the independence armies and depended on the American government juntas. The colonial battalions behaved according to the support of the local elites in favor of a Junta or the Viceroy.
Royalist Armies Uniforms
The uniformology of the royalist armies in the wars of independence in Spanish America is a very complex work. Some authors rely strictly on the Spanish Royal Ordinances. These regulations were clear but often ignored in the Americas due to the Peninsular War (1808–1814) cutting off supply lines from Spain. Artists of the era often painted "idealized" versions of soldiers, or painted them years after the battle. And this confusion and divercity of opinions gives rise to imagination. And that is what is special about this interesting topic of the uniforms of the royalist side in America. Because the historical record is a patchwork of rigid laws and messy reality, researchers and enthusiasts often have to fill in the gaps with logical deduction or creative interpretation.
This collage of images made with AI is the result of various sources consulted on the subject. The standard use of the blue jacket is imposed, with a red collar, sleeves and lapel. Black shako with red Bourbon cockade. The pom pom and cords of the shako vary in color according to the battalions. In summer the troops wore white uniforms, including the covers of the shakos.
Both sides start from the same origin, the same army, which gives a touch of "civil war" to these independence wars. At the beginning of the war, it was a confrontation between the same divided army and with the same uniform which varied over the years. The independence army began to be equipped and equipped by England. With the lack of supplies, the royalists had to resort to the captured material.
It is likely that the basis of the uniform and equipment was the same as that of the fixed battalions of each Spanish colonial administration, to which when local volunteers joined, civilian garments such as ponchos were incorporated. Considering how chaotic uniformology was during the Spanish Civil War, it is not difficult to imagine what it was like in America in the early 19th century.
This collage of images made with AI is the result of various sources consulted on the subject. The standard use of the blue jacket is imposed, with a red collar, sleeves and lapel. Black shako with red Bourbon cockade. The pom pom and cords of the shako vary in color according to the battalions. In summer the troops wore white uniforms, including the covers of the shakos.
Both sides start from the same origin, the same army, which gives a touch of "civil war" to these independence wars. At the beginning of the war, it was a confrontation between the same divided army and with the same uniform which varied over the years. The independence army began to be equipped and equipped by England. With the lack of supplies, the royalists had to resort to the captured material.
It is likely that the basis of the uniform and equipment was the same as that of the fixed battalions of each Spanish colonial administration, to which when local volunteers joined, civilian garments such as ponchos were incorporated. Considering how chaotic uniformology was during the Spanish Civil War, it is not difficult to imagine what it was like in America in the early 19th century.
AI is a novel tool, but its results are not accurate. For example, artillery pieces.
It is an old period painting documenting the royalist uniform in 1809 with the modern interpretation of AI.
The use of AI here is to give a little realism to that old period engraving.
The troops wear blue jackets, with a collar, lapel, cuffs and red turns. The boots look like the Hungarian type. They all wear bicorne. A horse-drawn artillery piece is seen, the piece servants wearing blue sleeved caps with red pipins. On their backs the troops seem to carry a white grenade bag, along with the short infantry saber.
Photo: Entry into the city of Quito of the royal troops sent by the Viceroy of Peru in 1809. Painting attributed to Francisco Javier Cortés. Wikipedia.
The use of AI here is to give a little realism to that old period engraving.
The troops wear blue jackets, with a collar, lapel, cuffs and red turns. The boots look like the Hungarian type. They all wear bicorne. A horse-drawn artillery piece is seen, the piece servants wearing blue sleeved caps with red pipins. On their backs the troops seem to carry a white grenade bag, along with the short infantry saber.
Photo: Entry into the city of Quito of the royal troops sent by the Viceroy of Peru in 1809. Painting attributed to Francisco Javier Cortés. Wikipedia.
The Grenadier Uniform 1805. The Walloon Guards (Reales Guardias Valonas) were an elite infantry corps of the Spanish Royal Guard, originally recruited from the Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium). By the 1802 Regulations, their Grenadiers were among the most visually striking and prestigious soldiers in the Spanish Empire. This uniform is very similar to that of the Grenadiers of the Fixed Battalion of Buenos Aires.
Granaderos Provinciales (Terrada's Grenadiers) from the Rio de la Plata, were volunteer militia (civilians) formed in October 1806 specifically to defend against the expected second British invasion. They were famously commanded by Juan Florencio Terrada. A "provincial" or volunteer unit. They were later renamed the Batallón de Granaderos de Fernando VII in 1809.
Granaderos Provinciales (Terrada's Grenadiers) from the Rio de la Plata, were volunteer militia (civilians) formed in October 1806 specifically to defend against the expected second British invasion. They were famously commanded by Juan Florencio Terrada. A "provincial" or volunteer unit. They were later renamed the Batallón de Granaderos de Fernando VII in 1809.
The Guard of Viceroy Liniers (specifically the Granaderos de Liniers) was a unique mix of battle-hardened veterans and highly-trained volunteers.
While many other units in the Río de la Plata at that time were militias composed of civilians (recruits), the Viceroy's personal guard was an elite formation designed for both protection and prestige.
To ensure the safety of the Viceroy, the core of the unit consisted of professional soldiers with years of service in the Spanish regular army.
While many other units in the Río de la Plata at that time were militias composed of civilians (recruits), the Viceroy's personal guard was an elite formation designed for both protection and prestige.
To ensure the safety of the Viceroy, the core of the unit consisted of professional soldiers with years of service in the Spanish regular army.
The Royalist armies used the rampant lion because it was the primary heraldic symbol of the Kingdom of León. In the context of the Spanish Empire and the War of Independence, this emblem was a direct declaration of loyalty to the Spanish Crown.
The lion is one of the oldest heraldic symbols in Europe, first appearing on coins minted by King Alfonso VII in the 12th century. It likely originated from a "false etymology" or play on words between the city's Latin name, Legio (Legion), and the Latin word for lion, Leo.
The lion was a core component of the Spanish Royal Coat of Arms, representing the union of the kingdoms of Castile (the castle) and León (the lion). For a soldier in the Americas, wearing the lion badge clearly identified him as a defender of the established monarchy and Spanish sovereignty.
In heraldry, the lion is the "King of Beasts," symbolizing courage, strength, and majesty. The "rampant" position (standing on hind legs with forepaws raised) was specifically chosen to represent a warrior's readiness for battle and aggressive protection of the realm.
The lion is one of the oldest heraldic symbols in Europe, first appearing on coins minted by King Alfonso VII in the 12th century. It likely originated from a "false etymology" or play on words between the city's Latin name, Legio (Legion), and the Latin word for lion, Leo.
The lion was a core component of the Spanish Royal Coat of Arms, representing the union of the kingdoms of Castile (the castle) and León (the lion). For a soldier in the Americas, wearing the lion badge clearly identified him as a defender of the established monarchy and Spanish sovereignty.
In heraldry, the lion is the "King of Beasts," symbolizing courage, strength, and majesty. The "rampant" position (standing on hind legs with forepaws raised) was specifically chosen to represent a warrior's readiness for battle and aggressive protection of the realm.
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That portrait is a classic depiction of Mariano Gil de Bernabé e Ibáñez (1767 - 1812) as a Colonel of Artillery, specifically showing him in the uniform of the Regiment of the Royal Guard of Spanish Infantry (Reales Guardias Españolas), where he served earlier in his career. His uniform is from the Crown Regulation 1802-1805. The lapels are decorated with seven gold buttons and silver chevrons, as the officers of the grenadiers of the custody of Viceroy Liniers in the Río de la Plata would have used. The long sleeve chevron is the rank of colonel of the Royal Spanish Army. The difference is that Colonel Bernabe uses "sardinetas" in his collar, and the officers of the Grenadiers of Liniers use Liz's flower. I suppose that this symbol was common in other units of the Royal Spanish Army of the time. In the context of 18/19th century military uniforms, sardinetas are a specific type of braiding or lace bars. |
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In 1810, he founded a prestigious military academy in Seville (later moved to San Fernando, Cádiz). This institution was designed to quickly train "emergency officers" to lead the fight against Napoleon's invading forces.
Also He is considered the pioneer of the Oficialidad de Complemento (Reserve Officers) in Spain. He introduced a unified training model that provided a common educational foundation for all branches—Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, and Engineers.
He commanded the Batallón Literario in A Coruña, a famous unit composed entirely of volunteer students from the University of Santiago de Compostela who took up arms against the French.
Despite his high rank and influence, he died in poverty in 1812, having used his own personal wealth to fund his military education projects. He is buried in the Pantheon of Illustrious Sailors in San Fernando.
Also He is considered the pioneer of the Oficialidad de Complemento (Reserve Officers) in Spain. He introduced a unified training model that provided a common educational foundation for all branches—Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, and Engineers.
He commanded the Batallón Literario in A Coruña, a famous unit composed entirely of volunteer students from the University of Santiago de Compostela who took up arms against the French.
Despite his high rank and influence, he died in poverty in 1812, having used his own personal wealth to fund his military education projects. He is buried in the Pantheon of Illustrious Sailors in San Fernando.
The Reina María Isabel Mutiny (1818)
1818 mutiny aboard the Spanish frigate Reina María Isabel, which was part of a major expeditionary fleet sent to reinforce the Royalists in Peru and Chile.
The fleet, consisting of 11 transport ships and over 2,000 soldiers, departed Cádiz under the shadow of the Riego Rebellion's influence. As it reached the South Atlantic, the crew and soldiers aboard the María Isabel mutinied near the coast of Buenos Aires and Talcahuano.
The mutineers handed the ship over to the newly formed Chilean Navy (led by Manuel Blanco Encalada). This was a catastrophe for Spain, as the Patriots captured not only the frigate but also the fleet's secret codes, allowing them to intercept and capture almost the entire expeditionary force as the transport ships arrived one by one.
The fleet, consisting of 11 transport ships and over 2,000 soldiers, departed Cádiz under the shadow of the Riego Rebellion's influence. As it reached the South Atlantic, the crew and soldiers aboard the María Isabel mutinied near the coast of Buenos Aires and Talcahuano.
The mutineers handed the ship over to the newly formed Chilean Navy (led by Manuel Blanco Encalada). This was a catastrophe for Spain, as the Patriots captured not only the frigate but also the fleet's secret codes, allowing them to intercept and capture almost the entire expeditionary force as the transport ships arrived one by one.
Peru. The Royalist Citadel.
While the rest of the continent fell to revolutions between 1810 and 1820, the Viceroyalty of Peru remained remarkably stable. Its wealth, veteran leadership, and a population that was largely conservative or cautious made it the "aircraft carrier" from which Spain launched counter-offensives into Chile, Upper Peru (Bolivia), and Quito.
This is why the war ended there. San Martín realized he couldn't secure Argentine or Chilean independence if a Royalist army existed in Lima; Bolívar realized Gran Colombia was at risk as long as the Royal Army of Peru was intact. They both moved toward the same "X" on the map.
The "Catalyst" Effect. The remnants of Royalist units from the Río de la Plata (like the Blandengues who stayed loyal), Chile (the Talavera remnants), and New Granada (the Húsares de Fernando VII) all retreated toward Peru. It became a "melting pot" of the last professional Spanish soldiers in America.
The Final Hope. The high-altitude Sierra (Cuzco/Ayacucho) was the last place the Spanish Empire functioned as a state. Even after Lima fell in 1821, the Viceroyalty continued to collect taxes, mint coins, and field elite "reactive" armies from the mountains for three more years.
The Battle of Ayacucho (1824) didn't just end a local rebellion; it was the formal "funeral" of the Spanish Empire in South America.
This is why the war ended there. San Martín realized he couldn't secure Argentine or Chilean independence if a Royalist army existed in Lima; Bolívar realized Gran Colombia was at risk as long as the Royal Army of Peru was intact. They both moved toward the same "X" on the map.
The "Catalyst" Effect. The remnants of Royalist units from the Río de la Plata (like the Blandengues who stayed loyal), Chile (the Talavera remnants), and New Granada (the Húsares de Fernando VII) all retreated toward Peru. It became a "melting pot" of the last professional Spanish soldiers in America.
The Final Hope. The high-altitude Sierra (Cuzco/Ayacucho) was the last place the Spanish Empire functioned as a state. Even after Lima fell in 1821, the Viceroyalty continued to collect taxes, mint coins, and field elite "reactive" armies from the mountains for three more years.
The Battle of Ayacucho (1824) didn't just end a local rebellion; it was the formal "funeral" of the Spanish Empire in South America.
Royal Artillery in Peru
In the Royal Army of Peru, artillery was a critical but often scarce resource due to the challenges of transporting heavy guns across the high-altitude Andean terrain. By the time of the final campaigns (1821–1824), the artillery was organized under the Real Cuerpo de Artillería (Royal Artillery Corps) and was often attached in small batteries to larger infantry divisions.
Artillery Units & Commanders
Artillería de Ayacucho (1824): During the Battle of Ayacucho, the Royalist army possessed a significant advantage with 14 to 16 artillery pieces compared to the Patriots' single cannon.
General Fernando Cacho: He served as the Commander of Artillery during the final stage of the war and was responsible for the deployment of the Royalist guns on the heights of Condorcunca.
Artillería del Callao: The artillery units at the Real Felipe Fortress in Callao were the most formidable in the Viceroyalty.
Brigadier José Ramón Rodil: Although he was the overall Military Governor of Callao, he commanded the massive artillery batteries that held out in the fortress against a siege until January 1826—the last Spanish stronghold in South America to surrender.
Artillería Volante (Flying Artillery): These were highly "reactive" horse-drawn units designed to move quickly with the cavalry and light infantry. They typically utilized 4-pounder or 6-pounder mountain guns that could be dismantled and carried by mules over steep mountain passes.
Organization and Strength
The Royalist artillery was largely composed of veteran Spanish officers and highly trained technical staff, though 80% of the rank-and-file in the wider Royal Army were local Peruvians.
Viceroy Manuel de Amat y Junyent earlier established an artillery factory and powder magazines in Lima, ensuring the Royalist forces had access to domestically produced ordnance and skilled mathematicians to serve the guns.
Artillery Units & Commanders
Artillería de Ayacucho (1824): During the Battle of Ayacucho, the Royalist army possessed a significant advantage with 14 to 16 artillery pieces compared to the Patriots' single cannon.
General Fernando Cacho: He served as the Commander of Artillery during the final stage of the war and was responsible for the deployment of the Royalist guns on the heights of Condorcunca.
Artillería del Callao: The artillery units at the Real Felipe Fortress in Callao were the most formidable in the Viceroyalty.
Brigadier José Ramón Rodil: Although he was the overall Military Governor of Callao, he commanded the massive artillery batteries that held out in the fortress against a siege until January 1826—the last Spanish stronghold in South America to surrender.
Artillería Volante (Flying Artillery): These were highly "reactive" horse-drawn units designed to move quickly with the cavalry and light infantry. They typically utilized 4-pounder or 6-pounder mountain guns that could be dismantled and carried by mules over steep mountain passes.
Organization and Strength
The Royalist artillery was largely composed of veteran Spanish officers and highly trained technical staff, though 80% of the rank-and-file in the wider Royal Army were local Peruvians.
Viceroy Manuel de Amat y Junyent earlier established an artillery factory and powder magazines in Lima, ensuring the Royalist forces had access to domestically produced ordnance and skilled mathematicians to serve the guns.
Royal Spanish Cavalry in Peru
In the context of the Spanish Royal Army of Peru (the Ejército Real del Perú), the most relevant cavalry units were those that formed the backbone of the Royalist defense in the Andes until 1824. These units were noted for their high mobility, veteran status, and elite training. The Royalist cavalry regiments were commanded by seasoned veteran officers, under General José de Canterac command of the Royalist cavalry division.
Regimiento de Dragones de la Unión (Colonel Vicente Sardina): Considered the most prestigious and veteran unit. Originally arriving with General Morillo’s expeditionary force from Spain, they became the cornerstone of the Royalist cavalry in the Peruvian highlands.
Granaderos de la Guardia (Guard Grenadiers); (Colonel Manuel Quimper): This was the elite heavy cavalry of the Royalist army, and ommanded by elite officers like General José de Canterac; They were the most feared shock troops on the continent, designed to deliver a crushing blow with cold steel at the climax of a battle.
Unlike light cavalry used for scouting, these "Grenadiers" were held back to act as a decisive hammer against Patriot lines.
They were hand-picked for their physical stature, veteran experience, and bravery.
Battle of Junín (1824). They were a central part of the massive Royalist cavalry charge that initially shattered the Patriot vanguard. However, their heavy equipment and rigid formations made them vulnerable to the rapid counter-attack of the Patriot Hussars of Peru
Regimiento de Dragones del Perú (Colonel Dionisio Marcilla): Unlike the Unión, this unit was primarily composed of American-born Royalists (criollos and mestizos from the highlands) who were exceptionally well-adapted to the high altitudes of the Andes.
The Regimiento de Dragones del Perú was one of the most critical cavalry units of the Spanish Royal Army during the Peruvian War of Independence. .
The regiment was mostly made up of Criollos and Mestizos from the Peruvian highlands (Sierra). This gave them a massive tactical advantage: they were "acclimatized" to the thin air and extreme altitudes of the Andes, where European troops often struggled. As Dragoons, they were trained to fight both as shock cavalry (with sabers and lances) and as mounted infantry (dismounting to fire carbines), making them the most versatile "reactive" force for General Canterac.
Húsares de Fernando VII (Colonel Felipe Rivero): (Hussars of Ferdinand VII) was a highly active light cavalry regiment in the Spanish Royal Army. While it is most famous for its service in the Peninsular War in Spain, a detachment or namesake unit also played a "reactive" role in the royalist defense of the Viceroyalty of Peru and other American territories.
A critical light cavalry regiment used for rapid maneuvering, scouting, and skirmishing. They were instrumental in the "seesaw" war across the central sierra.
The regiment was officially converted into hussars on May 1, 1811, becoming one of only four hussar regiments to survive the military reorganization of that year.
Elements of the unit or identically named volunteer squadrons were deployed to high-conflict zones like Peru and Venezuela. In Peru, they served as a mobile scouting and skirmishing force, providing the "eyes" for royalist generals like José de Canterac during the Andean campaigns.
Húsares de la Concordia (Hussars of Concord); Colonel Manuel de Goyeneche). Image above.
This regiment was an elite Royalist light cavalry regiment in Peru, famously founded and funded by the merchants of Lima in 1811 as a demonstration of their loyalty to the Spanish Crown.
The unit was named to honor the "Concord" or peace that Viceroy José Fernando de Abascal sought to maintain in the Viceroyalty of Peru during the early uprisings in neighboring regions. It was considered one of the most prestigious units in the Royal Army of Peru. Its officers often came from the noble and merchant elite families of Lima.
The regiment fought in numerous critical campaigns across the Andes, including actions in Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) and against Patriot expeditions from Argentina and Chile. Like many high-profile Royalist units, it suffered heavy attrition during the long war and was eventually consolidated or dissolved following the decisive Royalist defeats at Junín and Ayacucho in 1824.
While they were the "arch-rivals" of the Patriot cavalry, their high level of training set the standard for cavalry operations in the region. After the war, many former Royalist soldiers and officers from units like these were integrated into the new Peruvian Army.
Contrary to common belief, by the 1820s, approximately 80% of these "Spanish" soldiers were actually Peruvians (indigenous and criollos) who remained loyal to the Spanish Crown.
Regimiento de Dragones de la Unión (Colonel Vicente Sardina): Considered the most prestigious and veteran unit. Originally arriving with General Morillo’s expeditionary force from Spain, they became the cornerstone of the Royalist cavalry in the Peruvian highlands.
Granaderos de la Guardia (Guard Grenadiers); (Colonel Manuel Quimper): This was the elite heavy cavalry of the Royalist army, and ommanded by elite officers like General José de Canterac; They were the most feared shock troops on the continent, designed to deliver a crushing blow with cold steel at the climax of a battle.
Unlike light cavalry used for scouting, these "Grenadiers" were held back to act as a decisive hammer against Patriot lines.
They were hand-picked for their physical stature, veteran experience, and bravery.
Battle of Junín (1824). They were a central part of the massive Royalist cavalry charge that initially shattered the Patriot vanguard. However, their heavy equipment and rigid formations made them vulnerable to the rapid counter-attack of the Patriot Hussars of Peru
Regimiento de Dragones del Perú (Colonel Dionisio Marcilla): Unlike the Unión, this unit was primarily composed of American-born Royalists (criollos and mestizos from the highlands) who were exceptionally well-adapted to the high altitudes of the Andes.
The Regimiento de Dragones del Perú was one of the most critical cavalry units of the Spanish Royal Army during the Peruvian War of Independence. .
The regiment was mostly made up of Criollos and Mestizos from the Peruvian highlands (Sierra). This gave them a massive tactical advantage: they were "acclimatized" to the thin air and extreme altitudes of the Andes, where European troops often struggled. As Dragoons, they were trained to fight both as shock cavalry (with sabers and lances) and as mounted infantry (dismounting to fire carbines), making them the most versatile "reactive" force for General Canterac.
Húsares de Fernando VII (Colonel Felipe Rivero): (Hussars of Ferdinand VII) was a highly active light cavalry regiment in the Spanish Royal Army. While it is most famous for its service in the Peninsular War in Spain, a detachment or namesake unit also played a "reactive" role in the royalist defense of the Viceroyalty of Peru and other American territories.
A critical light cavalry regiment used for rapid maneuvering, scouting, and skirmishing. They were instrumental in the "seesaw" war across the central sierra.
The regiment was officially converted into hussars on May 1, 1811, becoming one of only four hussar regiments to survive the military reorganization of that year.
Elements of the unit or identically named volunteer squadrons were deployed to high-conflict zones like Peru and Venezuela. In Peru, they served as a mobile scouting and skirmishing force, providing the "eyes" for royalist generals like José de Canterac during the Andean campaigns.
Húsares de la Concordia (Hussars of Concord); Colonel Manuel de Goyeneche). Image above.
This regiment was an elite Royalist light cavalry regiment in Peru, famously founded and funded by the merchants of Lima in 1811 as a demonstration of their loyalty to the Spanish Crown.
The unit was named to honor the "Concord" or peace that Viceroy José Fernando de Abascal sought to maintain in the Viceroyalty of Peru during the early uprisings in neighboring regions. It was considered one of the most prestigious units in the Royal Army of Peru. Its officers often came from the noble and merchant elite families of Lima.
The regiment fought in numerous critical campaigns across the Andes, including actions in Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) and against Patriot expeditions from Argentina and Chile. Like many high-profile Royalist units, it suffered heavy attrition during the long war and was eventually consolidated or dissolved following the decisive Royalist defeats at Junín and Ayacucho in 1824.
While they were the "arch-rivals" of the Patriot cavalry, their high level of training set the standard for cavalry operations in the region. After the war, many former Royalist soldiers and officers from units like these were integrated into the new Peruvian Army.
Contrary to common belief, by the 1820s, approximately 80% of these "Spanish" soldiers were actually Peruvians (indigenous and criollos) who remained loyal to the Spanish Crown.
Royal Army in Peru (Infantry)
In the final stage of the Peruvian War of Independence (1821–1824), the Royal Army of Peru's infantry was organized into two main divisions: the Vanguard (under Gerónimo Valdés) and the First Division (under José de Canterac).
The Elite Veteran Units
1st Regiment of the "Cuzco" Battalion: Commanded by Colonel Joaquín Rubín de Celis. This was perhaps the most famous royalist infantry unit, composed of highly disciplined Peruvian highlanders (Serranos) who were incredibly resilient in high altitudes.
1st Regiment of the "Burgos" Battalion: Commanded by Colonel Juan Antonio Monet. Originally an expeditionary unit from Spain, it was considered the "backbone" of the professional infantry.
Battalion of the "Cantabria" Regiment: Commanded by Colonel Rafael López Limon. Another elite expeditionary unit known for its tactical discipline and "reactive" maneuvers in the central sierra.
The Specialized "Light" Units (Cazadores)
Battalion of "Gerona": Commanded by Colonel Francisco Narváez. This was a light infantry unit (Cazadores) used for rapid movement and skirmishing in the difficult Andean terrain.
Battalion of "Fernando VII": Commanded by Colonel José Carratalá. A veteran unit that saw heavy action in the counter-insurgency wars against Patriot guerrillas (Montoneros).
While the colonels led the battalions, the strategic "reactivity" of the infantry was directed by:
General Gerónimo Valdés: The most respected royalist infantry general. He led the "Vanguard Division" and was famous for his "marches of the devil," moving infantry across the Andes at impossible speeds.
General José de Canterac: Though primarily a cavalryman, as Chief of Staff, he coordinated the combined arms tactics that kept the Royalist army undefeated in the field until 1824.
General Alejandro González Villalobos: Commander of the reserve infantry during the final campaigns.
The Elite Veteran Units
1st Regiment of the "Cuzco" Battalion: Commanded by Colonel Joaquín Rubín de Celis. This was perhaps the most famous royalist infantry unit, composed of highly disciplined Peruvian highlanders (Serranos) who were incredibly resilient in high altitudes.
1st Regiment of the "Burgos" Battalion: Commanded by Colonel Juan Antonio Monet. Originally an expeditionary unit from Spain, it was considered the "backbone" of the professional infantry.
Battalion of the "Cantabria" Regiment: Commanded by Colonel Rafael López Limon. Another elite expeditionary unit known for its tactical discipline and "reactive" maneuvers in the central sierra.
The Specialized "Light" Units (Cazadores)
Battalion of "Gerona": Commanded by Colonel Francisco Narváez. This was a light infantry unit (Cazadores) used for rapid movement and skirmishing in the difficult Andean terrain.
Battalion of "Fernando VII": Commanded by Colonel José Carratalá. A veteran unit that saw heavy action in the counter-insurgency wars against Patriot guerrillas (Montoneros).
While the colonels led the battalions, the strategic "reactivity" of the infantry was directed by:
General Gerónimo Valdés: The most respected royalist infantry general. He led the "Vanguard Division" and was famous for his "marches of the devil," moving infantry across the Andes at impossible speeds.
General José de Canterac: Though primarily a cavalryman, as Chief of Staff, he coordinated the combined arms tactics that kept the Royalist army undefeated in the field until 1824.
General Alejandro González Villalobos: Commander of the reserve infantry during the final campaigns.
Royal Peruvian Army: Talavera de la Reina (Chile), Concepcion (Peru), and Chiloe (Chile) Battalions.They all dressed more or less the same. In this example above you can see the white color used in summer and winter entirely in blue Of course there were royalist battalions from Buenos Aires, but unlike the Chilean battalions, the Patenses were integrated into other royalist battalions with headquarters in Peru
When the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (headquartered in Buenos Aires) collapsed due to the May Revolution of 1810, several military units and commanders remained loyal to the Spanish Crown and retreated to Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia) to join the Royal Army of Peru. The most notable "Realista" (Royalist) forces from the Buenos Aires region that integrated into the Peruvian Royalist cause include:
Real de Lima (ex-Buenos Aires components): After the evacuation of Buenos Aires, veteran soldiers from the Fijo de Buenos Aires (Fixed Regiment of Buenos Aires) retreated north. They eventually became a core part of the Royalist infantry in Upper Peru, often being absorbed into the veteran battalions of the Royal Army of Peru.
Húsares del Rey (King's Hussars): While many members of this Buenos Aires cavalry unit joined the revolutionaries, a significant portion of the officer corps and loyalists fled to the Royalist camp in the North to continue the fight.
Blandenques de la Frontera (loyalist factions): Small detachments of these frontier cavalrymen from the Río de la Plata remained loyal to the Spanish King and joined the Royalist defense of Upper Peru.
When the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (headquartered in Buenos Aires) collapsed due to the May Revolution of 1810, several military units and commanders remained loyal to the Spanish Crown and retreated to Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia) to join the Royal Army of Peru. The most notable "Realista" (Royalist) forces from the Buenos Aires region that integrated into the Peruvian Royalist cause include:
Real de Lima (ex-Buenos Aires components): After the evacuation of Buenos Aires, veteran soldiers from the Fijo de Buenos Aires (Fixed Regiment of Buenos Aires) retreated north. They eventually became a core part of the Royalist infantry in Upper Peru, often being absorbed into the veteran battalions of the Royal Army of Peru.
Húsares del Rey (King's Hussars): While many members of this Buenos Aires cavalry unit joined the revolutionaries, a significant portion of the officer corps and loyalists fled to the Royalist camp in the North to continue the fight.
Blandenques de la Frontera (loyalist factions): Small detachments of these frontier cavalrymen from the Río de la Plata remained loyal to the Spanish King and joined the Royalist defense of Upper Peru.
Santiago de Liniers the former Viceroy and hero of the defense against the British invasions organized a counter-revolution in Córdoba with the intent of linking up with the Royal Army in Peru. Although he was captured and executed before reaching Peru, many of his officers successfully escaped to the North.
Historical accounts of the execution of Liniers and his companions at Cabeza de Tigre on August 26, 1810, highlight a scene far more brutal than the idealized illustrations often suggest.
Juan Antonio Gutiérrez de la Concha was executed alongside Santiago de Liniers on August 26, 1810. They were shot by firing squad in a location known as Cabeza de Tigre (modern-day Los Surgentes, Córdoba) by order of the Primera Junta of Buenos Aires.
As the Governor of Córdoba, Gutiérrez de la Concha had joined Liniers in organizing a counter-revolutionary resistance against the newly formed patriot government.
The execution included several other key members of the royalist resistance in Córdoba:
Santiago Alejo de Allende, former Governor and military officer; Victorino Rodríguez, former assessor.; Joaquín Moreno, Royal official and accountant.
Bishop Rodrigo de Orellana was also captured with the group and sentenced to death, but his life was spared due to his religious status; he was instead forced to witness the executions and provide spiritual comfort to the condemned.
Francisco Javier de Elío, who was one of the most aggressive and persistent antagonists of Santiago de Liniers, .was declared the new Viceroy in Montevideo (which remained a Royalist stronghold until 1814), he coordinated with the Peruvian Viceroy, José Fernando de Abascal, to launch pincer attacks against the Buenos Aires revolutionaries.
After the May Revolution of 1810, Montevideo became the primary refuge and operational base for Royalists fleeing the revolutionary government in Buenos Aires.
Upper Peru became the primary "buffer zone" where these displaced Royalist forces gathered. Because the region was annexed to the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1810, it served as the staging ground for the Royal Army to launch counter-invasions into Argentine territory, repelling Buenos Aires' Army of the North on four separate occasions.
Historical accounts of the execution of Liniers and his companions at Cabeza de Tigre on August 26, 1810, highlight a scene far more brutal than the idealized illustrations often suggest.
Juan Antonio Gutiérrez de la Concha was executed alongside Santiago de Liniers on August 26, 1810. They were shot by firing squad in a location known as Cabeza de Tigre (modern-day Los Surgentes, Córdoba) by order of the Primera Junta of Buenos Aires.
As the Governor of Córdoba, Gutiérrez de la Concha had joined Liniers in organizing a counter-revolutionary resistance against the newly formed patriot government.
The execution included several other key members of the royalist resistance in Córdoba:
Santiago Alejo de Allende, former Governor and military officer; Victorino Rodríguez, former assessor.; Joaquín Moreno, Royal official and accountant.
Bishop Rodrigo de Orellana was also captured with the group and sentenced to death, but his life was spared due to his religious status; he was instead forced to witness the executions and provide spiritual comfort to the condemned.
Francisco Javier de Elío, who was one of the most aggressive and persistent antagonists of Santiago de Liniers, .was declared the new Viceroy in Montevideo (which remained a Royalist stronghold until 1814), he coordinated with the Peruvian Viceroy, José Fernando de Abascal, to launch pincer attacks against the Buenos Aires revolutionaries.
After the May Revolution of 1810, Montevideo became the primary refuge and operational base for Royalists fleeing the revolutionary government in Buenos Aires.
Upper Peru became the primary "buffer zone" where these displaced Royalist forces gathered. Because the region was annexed to the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1810, it served as the staging ground for the Royal Army to launch counter-invasions into Argentine territory, repelling Buenos Aires' Army of the North on four separate occasions.
Regimiento de Dragones del Rey and Regimientos de Caballeria Escuadrones del Rey. Uniform 1805.
In 1805, The Regmiento de Dragones del Rey (King's Dragoon Regiment) underwent a significant uniform change following the restoration of the Dragoon branch. After a brief period as light cavalry, they returned to a "lemon yellow" color scheme that became iconic for Spanish Dragoons during the Peninsular War.
In the 1805 Spanish military reorganization, the term "Regimiento de Caballeria, Escuadrones del Rey" typically refers to the Regimiento de Caballería de Línea "El Rey" No. 1 (The King's Line Cavalry Regiment). Following the 1805 regulations, this elite unit re-adopted a distinct heavy cavalry appearance after several years of experimental changes.
The 1805 regulation restored regimental distinctions, giving "El Rey" one of the most prestigious looks in the Spanish heavy cavalry.
In 1805, The Regmiento de Dragones del Rey (King's Dragoon Regiment) underwent a significant uniform change following the restoration of the Dragoon branch. After a brief period as light cavalry, they returned to a "lemon yellow" color scheme that became iconic for Spanish Dragoons during the Peninsular War.
In the 1805 Spanish military reorganization, the term "Regimiento de Caballeria, Escuadrones del Rey" typically refers to the Regimiento de Caballería de Línea "El Rey" No. 1 (The King's Line Cavalry Regiment). Following the 1805 regulations, this elite unit re-adopted a distinct heavy cavalry appearance after several years of experimental changes.
The 1805 regulation restored regimental distinctions, giving "El Rey" one of the most prestigious looks in the Spanish heavy cavalry.
Carabineros Reales and Spanish Hussars. Uniform 1805.
In 1805, the Regimiento de Carabineros Reales (Royal Carbineers) were the elite heavy cavalry of the Spanish Royal Guard..
The Húsares de Españoles (Spanish Hussars) were a specific light cavalry regiment reorganized in 1805 under the reforms of Manuel Godoy.
In 1805, the Regimiento de Carabineros Reales (Royal Carbineers) were the elite heavy cavalry of the Spanish Royal Guard..
The Húsares de Españoles (Spanish Hussars) were a specific light cavalry regiment reorganized in 1805 under the reforms of Manuel Godoy.
Regimiento de Caballeria Cazadores Olivencia and Cazadores de la Guardia del Generalisimo. Uniform 1805.
The Regimiento de Caballería Cazadores de Olivencia or Olivenza, was officially converted from a hussar regiment to a mounted hunter (light cavalry) regiment in 1805.
The "Cazadores de Olivencia" light infantry were foot soldiers, the Cazadores a Caballo de Olivenza were a distinct cavalry unit that shared the same name and regional origin.
Guardia de Honor del Generalísimo (also known as the Cazadores de la Guardia de Honor del Príncipe de la Paz), a prestigious elite unit created for Manuel Godoy, the "Prince of the Peace" and Generalissimo of the Spanish armies. Cazadores a Caballo (Mounted Hunters) section of this guard, which was officially regulated in 1802 and 1805.
The Regimiento de Caballería Cazadores de Olivencia or Olivenza, was officially converted from a hussar regiment to a mounted hunter (light cavalry) regiment in 1805.
The "Cazadores de Olivencia" light infantry were foot soldiers, the Cazadores a Caballo de Olivenza were a distinct cavalry unit that shared the same name and regional origin.
Guardia de Honor del Generalísimo (also known as the Cazadores de la Guardia de Honor del Príncipe de la Paz), a prestigious elite unit created for Manuel Godoy, the "Prince of the Peace" and Generalissimo of the Spanish armies. Cazadores a Caballo (Mounted Hunters) section of this guard, which was officially regulated in 1802 and 1805.
Spanish Royal Army Corps of Engineer Sappers. Regimiento Real de Zapadores-Minadores. Uniform 1805.
The 1802/1805 Regulation Uniform
The standard appearance for a Sapper (Zapador) during the early Peninsular War (1808–1812) was defined by a dark blue short-tailed coat with a complex color scheme:
Dark blue with purple lapels and collar, and red cuffs and turnbacks.
Sardinetas (Lace Bars). White thread lace was used for buttonholes on the lapels. For certain elite distinctions, such as Miners 1st Class, three white laces (sardinetas) were worn on the cuffs.
Rank Distinctions
Corporals: Two white lace stripes around the cuffs.
Lance Corporals: One white lace stripe.
Insignia: Two white metal turret (castle) badges on the collar, representing the engineering branch.
Headgear: A distinctive black leather helmet with a bearskin crest, a white turban, and a red plume. On the front was an oval white metal plate. The helmet worn by the Spanish Royal Engineers (Zapadores-Minadores) between 1802 and 1805 was a Tarleton pattern (or "Tarleton style") helmet.
The 1802/1805 Regulation Uniform
The standard appearance for a Sapper (Zapador) during the early Peninsular War (1808–1812) was defined by a dark blue short-tailed coat with a complex color scheme:
Dark blue with purple lapels and collar, and red cuffs and turnbacks.
Sardinetas (Lace Bars). White thread lace was used for buttonholes on the lapels. For certain elite distinctions, such as Miners 1st Class, three white laces (sardinetas) were worn on the cuffs.
Rank Distinctions
Corporals: Two white lace stripes around the cuffs.
Lance Corporals: One white lace stripe.
Insignia: Two white metal turret (castle) badges on the collar, representing the engineering branch.
Headgear: A distinctive black leather helmet with a bearskin crest, a white turban, and a red plume. On the front was an oval white metal plate. The helmet worn by the Spanish Royal Engineers (Zapadores-Minadores) between 1802 and 1805 was a Tarleton pattern (or "Tarleton style") helmet.
Royal Spanish Army Artillery. 1805 uniform, Solder, Officer and Horse Artillery (Artilleria Volante).
The 1806 Uniform Regulations (Reglamento de 1806)
Captain Luis Daoíz y Torres is a unique case in uniformology because his actual 1808 coat still exists. It was restored in 2015 and is held by the Spanish Army Museum (Museo del Ejército).
Artillery Jacket: A dark blue, long-tailed coat. The lapels were also blue, piped in red, while the cuffs were solid red.
As a Captain, Daoíz wore two gold wire epaulettes. His collar featured a brass/gold flaming bomb, the traditional emblem of the artillery since 1804.
A black felt bicorne edged with gold lace (signifying his officer rank) with the mandatory red Spanish cockade and a red plume.
Breeches & Boots: While gunners wore blue breeches with black gaiters, officers like Daoíz typically wore black boots and either blue or white breeches (white being common for off-duty or summer use).
The hussar-style boots (often called botas de húsar or "Hessian" boots) worn by Luis Daoíz in 1808 and the Regimiento de Patricios in 1806-1807 highlight how elite units across the Spanish Empire shared a specific "prestige" aesthetic. It’s a perfect example of why uniformology is so circular: a Spanish captain in Madrid and a militia officer in the Río de la Plata looked nearly identical because they were both drawing from the same transatlantic fashion manual.
Luis Daoíz died on May 2, 1808, while defending the Monteleón Artillery Park in Madrid against French occupation troops. His death was a slow and brutal process that occurred over several hours of intense fighting.
During the third French assault on the barracks, Daoíz was shot in the hip. Despite the severe injury, he reportedly remained on the battlefield, leaning against a cannon and continuing to issue orders.
As the French reached the artillery lines, Daoíz was wounded twice more while defending the position with his sabre.
Accounts state that Daoíz was eventually stabbed in the back with a bayonet while approaching a French officer who was waving a white flag of truce. He was then riddled with further stab wounds as the position was overrun.
The "discovery" of Luis Daoíz’s jacket isn't a story of finding it in an attic or a lost chest; it was "discovered" in a technical and historical sense during a major 2015 restoration project by the Spanish Army Museum (Museo del Ejército). While the jacket had been in the museum's collection for a long time, its true secrets were only revealed when conservators decided to perform a deep analysis.
Instead of treating it like a simple piece of old clothing, restorers used an archaeological approach treating the fabric like a site of historical evidence.
When they opened the lining of the casaca (coat), they found massive amounts of dried blood. This proved that Daoíz didn't just have a surface wound; he had literally bled out inside the garment while he continued to fight.
The jacket "spoke" to the historians by showing the exact entry points of the bayonet thrusts. This allowed experts to map his final moments far more accurately than the idealized paintings from the 19th century.
The museum noted that this is the only surviving 1808 artillery officer's uniform of its kind, making its preservation a critical link to the Peninsular War.
Essentially, the "discovery" was the shift from seeing the jacket as a memorial relic to seeing it as a primary forensic source. It confirmed that the hero of Dos de Mayo died exactly as the most brutal accounts described—stabbed repeatedly while refusing to surrender his post.
Following his death at the Monteleón Artillery Park, Daoíz was buried wearing the same dark blue (azul turquí) uniform in which he had fought and bled. Six years later, after the French had been driven out of Spain, his body was exhumed to be moved to a more honorable resting place. It was during this exhumation in 1814 that the coat was removed from his remains. Because it was a high-quality officer's garment and held immense symbolic value as a relic of the national resistance, it was preserved rather than reburied.
The jacket was placed in a wooden box and stored for over a century before eventually becoming a centerpiece of the Spanish Army Museum (Museo del Ejército).
Captain Luis Daoíz y Torres is a unique case in uniformology because his actual 1808 coat still exists. It was restored in 2015 and is held by the Spanish Army Museum (Museo del Ejército).
Artillery Jacket: A dark blue, long-tailed coat. The lapels were also blue, piped in red, while the cuffs were solid red.
As a Captain, Daoíz wore two gold wire epaulettes. His collar featured a brass/gold flaming bomb, the traditional emblem of the artillery since 1804.
A black felt bicorne edged with gold lace (signifying his officer rank) with the mandatory red Spanish cockade and a red plume.
Breeches & Boots: While gunners wore blue breeches with black gaiters, officers like Daoíz typically wore black boots and either blue or white breeches (white being common for off-duty or summer use).
The hussar-style boots (often called botas de húsar or "Hessian" boots) worn by Luis Daoíz in 1808 and the Regimiento de Patricios in 1806-1807 highlight how elite units across the Spanish Empire shared a specific "prestige" aesthetic. It’s a perfect example of why uniformology is so circular: a Spanish captain in Madrid and a militia officer in the Río de la Plata looked nearly identical because they were both drawing from the same transatlantic fashion manual.
Luis Daoíz died on May 2, 1808, while defending the Monteleón Artillery Park in Madrid against French occupation troops. His death was a slow and brutal process that occurred over several hours of intense fighting.
During the third French assault on the barracks, Daoíz was shot in the hip. Despite the severe injury, he reportedly remained on the battlefield, leaning against a cannon and continuing to issue orders.
As the French reached the artillery lines, Daoíz was wounded twice more while defending the position with his sabre.
Accounts state that Daoíz was eventually stabbed in the back with a bayonet while approaching a French officer who was waving a white flag of truce. He was then riddled with further stab wounds as the position was overrun.
The "discovery" of Luis Daoíz’s jacket isn't a story of finding it in an attic or a lost chest; it was "discovered" in a technical and historical sense during a major 2015 restoration project by the Spanish Army Museum (Museo del Ejército). While the jacket had been in the museum's collection for a long time, its true secrets were only revealed when conservators decided to perform a deep analysis.
Instead of treating it like a simple piece of old clothing, restorers used an archaeological approach treating the fabric like a site of historical evidence.
When they opened the lining of the casaca (coat), they found massive amounts of dried blood. This proved that Daoíz didn't just have a surface wound; he had literally bled out inside the garment while he continued to fight.
The jacket "spoke" to the historians by showing the exact entry points of the bayonet thrusts. This allowed experts to map his final moments far more accurately than the idealized paintings from the 19th century.
The museum noted that this is the only surviving 1808 artillery officer's uniform of its kind, making its preservation a critical link to the Peninsular War.
Essentially, the "discovery" was the shift from seeing the jacket as a memorial relic to seeing it as a primary forensic source. It confirmed that the hero of Dos de Mayo died exactly as the most brutal accounts described—stabbed repeatedly while refusing to surrender his post.
Following his death at the Monteleón Artillery Park, Daoíz was buried wearing the same dark blue (azul turquí) uniform in which he had fought and bled. Six years later, after the French had been driven out of Spain, his body was exhumed to be moved to a more honorable resting place. It was during this exhumation in 1814 that the coat was removed from his remains. Because it was a high-quality officer's garment and held immense symbolic value as a relic of the national resistance, it was preserved rather than reburied.
The jacket was placed in a wooden box and stored for over a century before eventually becoming a centerpiece of the Spanish Army Museum (Museo del Ejército).
José Rubio y Villegas was a military painter commissioned in 1861 by General José Marchesi, then Director of the Royal Spanish Armories, to document the history of the Spanish Army's uniforms.
The illustration titled "Regimientos Simbólicos de la Guerra de la Independencia (From France)" (Symbolic Regiments of the War of Independence against Napoleon), is a well known work by him. It depicts several symbolic units from the 1808 conflict, including:
Patria
Fernando VII - (It should not be confused with the unit of the same name in the Río de la Plata, also known as the Grenadier Regiment of Ferdinand VII).
Santa Fe - On the painting by Villegas, it is written as Santa Fee, but this is an archaic or stylized spelling that is not standard in modern Spanish.
Muerte (Death)
Victoria (Victory)
He produced two major albums one for the Infantry and one for the Cavalry comprised of nearly 150 prints. His illustrations cover Spanish military dress from ancient times up until 1861. His plates are frequently used as primary visual sources for researchers, as they attempt to reconcile the strict "Ordinancist" regulations with the reality of how these units were actually equipped.
These illustrations were created in 1861, over 50 years after the events of the Peninsular War.
If you compare the 1807 uniforms of the Regimiento de Patricios or the Blandengues in Buenos Aires to the 1808 Spanish plates by Villegas, the Americans look like they belong to a different decade. There are three concrete reasons why the Río de la Plata uniforms were "older".
In 1802, Spain introduced a radical new uniform (the M1802): short dark-blue jackets with tall, stiff collars. By 1805, Spain realized these were unpopular and expensive, so they reverted to the M1805 (long white coats for infantry).
Switched to the new styles relatively quickly because they were near the factories.
(Captain Luis Daoíz was wearing the 1805 Regulaton officer’s jacket when he died in 1808).
In 1807, many units in the Río de la Plata were still wearing the 1790s-style long blue coats or the 1802 "short" style that Spain had already officially abandoned. The "new" fashion simply hadn't arrived on the ships yet.
The units on the image (like Patria or Fernando VII) represent the "cutting edge" of 1808 Spanish resistance fashion often influenced by French or British tailoring. In contrast, the Fixed Battalions in the Americas were designed to be permanent. They used local tailors who followed "The Book" from twenty years prior.
This is why, during the British Invasions of 1806-1807, the defenders of Buenos Aires often looked more like soldiers from the era of Charles III (1780s) than the Napoleonic soldiers appearing in Europe.
By the time the Fernando VII Regiment was fully integrated into the Army of Peru (post-1815), it underwent what we could call a "Napoleonic Upgrade." This transition moved them away from the 18th-century "Colonial" look and toward the aesthetic captured in the Villegas plate (The Peninsular Fernando VII
The illustration titled "Regimientos Simbólicos de la Guerra de la Independencia (From France)" (Symbolic Regiments of the War of Independence against Napoleon), is a well known work by him. It depicts several symbolic units from the 1808 conflict, including:
Patria
Fernando VII - (It should not be confused with the unit of the same name in the Río de la Plata, also known as the Grenadier Regiment of Ferdinand VII).
Santa Fe - On the painting by Villegas, it is written as Santa Fee, but this is an archaic or stylized spelling that is not standard in modern Spanish.
Muerte (Death)
Victoria (Victory)
He produced two major albums one for the Infantry and one for the Cavalry comprised of nearly 150 prints. His illustrations cover Spanish military dress from ancient times up until 1861. His plates are frequently used as primary visual sources for researchers, as they attempt to reconcile the strict "Ordinancist" regulations with the reality of how these units were actually equipped.
These illustrations were created in 1861, over 50 years after the events of the Peninsular War.
If you compare the 1807 uniforms of the Regimiento de Patricios or the Blandengues in Buenos Aires to the 1808 Spanish plates by Villegas, the Americans look like they belong to a different decade. There are three concrete reasons why the Río de la Plata uniforms were "older".
In 1802, Spain introduced a radical new uniform (the M1802): short dark-blue jackets with tall, stiff collars. By 1805, Spain realized these were unpopular and expensive, so they reverted to the M1805 (long white coats for infantry).
Switched to the new styles relatively quickly because they were near the factories.
(Captain Luis Daoíz was wearing the 1805 Regulaton officer’s jacket when he died in 1808).
In 1807, many units in the Río de la Plata were still wearing the 1790s-style long blue coats or the 1802 "short" style that Spain had already officially abandoned. The "new" fashion simply hadn't arrived on the ships yet.
The units on the image (like Patria or Fernando VII) represent the "cutting edge" of 1808 Spanish resistance fashion often influenced by French or British tailoring. In contrast, the Fixed Battalions in the Americas were designed to be permanent. They used local tailors who followed "The Book" from twenty years prior.
This is why, during the British Invasions of 1806-1807, the defenders of Buenos Aires often looked more like soldiers from the era of Charles III (1780s) than the Napoleonic soldiers appearing in Europe.
By the time the Fernando VII Regiment was fully integrated into the Army of Peru (post-1815), it underwent what we could call a "Napoleonic Upgrade." This transition moved them away from the 18th-century "Colonial" look and toward the aesthetic captured in the Villegas plate (The Peninsular Fernando VII
AI's version of the Fernando VII Peninsular Regiment in 1808.
Different Geographic Theaters
The Royalist Army did not have a single unified "theater." Instead, it operated across multiple, often disconnected, regional fronts. While Morillo’s expedition was the "superstar" force sent from Spain to the North, the other Royalist theaters were largely self-sustaining and relied on local American recruits.
1. The Peruvian Stronghold
(The Southern Theater)
This was the most powerful Royalist theater and the final "bastion" of the Spanish Empire.
Location: Based in Lima, the Viceroyalty of Peru used its immense wealth and established institutions to fund counter-revolutions in neighboring regions.
The Andean Front: Royalist forces in Peru and Upper Peru (Bolivia) fought a "seesaw" war against the Army of the North from Buenos Aires. They successfully blocked three Argentine invasions, winning key battles like Huaqui (1811) and Sipe-Sipe (1815).
The Chilean Reconquest: The Royalist Army of Peru sent expeditions south to retake Chile, leading to the Battle of Rancagua (1814), which restored Spanish rule there until San Martín’s 1817 crossing.
2. The Caribbean and New Spain (The Northern Theater)
Aside from Morillo's campaign in the mainland, there were two other critical "locks" on Spanish power:
The Mexican Front: This was a theater of intense counter-insurgency. Local Royalist militias were extremely effective at crushing early revolts like the Hidalgo Uprising (1810). Spain maintained control here until the Plan of Iguala (1821), when the Royalist military leaders themselves switched sides to secure independence.
The Islands (Cuba & Puerto Rico): These were the most loyal theaters. Spain used them as "floating fortresses" to launch expeditions like the Barradas Expedition of 1829.
3. The Peripheral Resistance Strongholds
While major cities fell, Royalism remained "alive" in specific geographical pockets of fierce loyalty:
The Royalist Army did not have a single unified "theater." Instead, it operated across multiple, often disconnected, regional fronts. While Morillo’s expedition was the "superstar" force sent from Spain to the North, the other Royalist theaters were largely self-sustaining and relied on local American recruits.
1. The Peruvian Stronghold
(The Southern Theater)
This was the most powerful Royalist theater and the final "bastion" of the Spanish Empire.
Location: Based in Lima, the Viceroyalty of Peru used its immense wealth and established institutions to fund counter-revolutions in neighboring regions.
The Andean Front: Royalist forces in Peru and Upper Peru (Bolivia) fought a "seesaw" war against the Army of the North from Buenos Aires. They successfully blocked three Argentine invasions, winning key battles like Huaqui (1811) and Sipe-Sipe (1815).
The Chilean Reconquest: The Royalist Army of Peru sent expeditions south to retake Chile, leading to the Battle of Rancagua (1814), which restored Spanish rule there until San Martín’s 1817 crossing.
2. The Caribbean and New Spain (The Northern Theater)
Aside from Morillo's campaign in the mainland, there were two other critical "locks" on Spanish power:
The Mexican Front: This was a theater of intense counter-insurgency. Local Royalist militias were extremely effective at crushing early revolts like the Hidalgo Uprising (1810). Spain maintained control here until the Plan of Iguala (1821), when the Royalist military leaders themselves switched sides to secure independence.
The Islands (Cuba & Puerto Rico): These were the most loyal theaters. Spain used them as "floating fortresses" to launch expeditions like the Barradas Expedition of 1829.
3. The Peripheral Resistance Strongholds
While major cities fell, Royalism remained "alive" in specific geographical pockets of fierce loyalty:
Former Viceroy Santiago de Liniers and Provincial Governor Juan Gutierrez de la Concha, were naval officer in the Spanish service. Both were executed by the First Junta after the May Revolution 1810. Their bodies remained in a mass grave until Queen Elizabeth II negotiated in 1861 the repatriation of their remains. Today, they rest in the same mausoleum in the Pantheon of Illustrious Sailors in San Fernando, Cádiz.
Juan Antonio Gutiérrez de la Concha was a central military figure in the defense of the Río de la Plata during the British invasions of 1806 and 1807. As a Brigadier of the Spanish Royal Navy, he served alongside Santiago de Liniers in both the reconquest of Buenos Aires and the subsequent defense against the second British expedition
Liniers though his military career began in the cavalry. After serving as a sub-lieutenant in the French Royal-Piémont Regiment, he moved to Spain and joined the Spanish Navy in 1775, initially earning the rank of Ensign.
He participated in the occupation of Santa Catarina Island (1776) and the siege of Colonia del Sacramento in modern-day Uruguay.
American Revolution. Serving on the San Vicente, he captured a 24-gun British ship in 1780 and two more in 1782 during the siege of Port Mahon, which earned him a promotion to Frigate Captain.
Viceroyalty Leadership. By 1788, he was entrusted with the naval command of the Río de la Plata, where he organized a flotilla of gunships.
His most famous role was leading the recapture of Buenos Aires from British forces in 1806, an achievement that led to his appointment as interim Viceroy.
Juan Antonio Gutiérrez de la Concha was a central military figure in the defense of the Río de la Plata during the British invasions of 1806 and 1807. As a Brigadier of the Spanish Royal Navy, he served alongside Santiago de Liniers in both the reconquest of Buenos Aires and the subsequent defense against the second British expedition
Liniers though his military career began in the cavalry. After serving as a sub-lieutenant in the French Royal-Piémont Regiment, he moved to Spain and joined the Spanish Navy in 1775, initially earning the rank of Ensign.
He participated in the occupation of Santa Catarina Island (1776) and the siege of Colonia del Sacramento in modern-day Uruguay.
American Revolution. Serving on the San Vicente, he captured a 24-gun British ship in 1780 and two more in 1782 during the siege of Port Mahon, which earned him a promotion to Frigate Captain.
Viceroyalty Leadership. By 1788, he was entrusted with the naval command of the Río de la Plata, where he organized a flotilla of gunships.
His most famous role was leading the recapture of Buenos Aires from British forces in 1806, an achievement that led to his appointment as interim Viceroy.
Frigate Captain José Maria Fernandez de Córdoba y Rojas 1774 - 1810, was an young Spanish Royalist officer executed in Potosí following his defeat at the Battle of Suipacha. He was associated with the Batallón de Voluntarios de Marina (also known as the Cuerpo de Marina). Before the 1810 revolution, He played a prominent role in defending Buenos Aires during the British Invasions of 1806 and 1807.
Opposing the May Revolution, he retreated to Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia) with Vicente Nieto. After being captured by the patriot Army of the North, he was executed on December 15, 1810, alongside Vicente Nieto and Francisco de Paula Sanz.
Opposing the May Revolution, he retreated to Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia) with Vicente Nieto. After being captured by the patriot Army of the North, he was executed on December 15, 1810, alongside Vicente Nieto and Francisco de Paula Sanz.
Left: Sailors, marines uniforms type 1807. Right: An interesting portrait of José Fernández de Córdoba y Rojas being a Marine Guard at 13 years of age. His bicorne wears red ribbons instead of the Bourbon cockade.
Center up: The coat of arms of Juan de Garay, which was de facto the coat of arms of the city of Buenos Aires around 1580 in its second foundation.
Center down: The 1649 coat of arms of Buenos Aires, introduced by Governor Jacinto de Láriz on November 5, 1649, featured a white dove (symbolizing the Holy Spirit) flying over a sea from which an anchor emerged. This design was a major departure from the city's original 1580 insignia, which featured a crowned eagle.
Center up: The coat of arms of Juan de Garay, which was de facto the coat of arms of the city of Buenos Aires around 1580 in its second foundation.
Center down: The 1649 coat of arms of Buenos Aires, introduced by Governor Jacinto de Láriz on November 5, 1649, featured a white dove (symbolizing the Holy Spirit) flying over a sea from which an anchor emerged. This design was a major departure from the city's original 1580 insignia, which featured a crowned eagle.
1807 Marines Infantry troops. Iconografia de los Uniformes Militares - Invasiones Inglesas. Justo Doldan, Enrique William Alzaga, Bonifacio del Carril. EMECE 1967
Escuela de Náutica (Nautical School) in Buenos Aires
The Escuela de Náutica (founded in 1799) is officially recognized as the birthplace of the Argentine Merchant Marine. The school is named after Manuel Belgrano because he was its intellectual architect and founder. While Cerviño and Alsina were the technical experts who ran the school, Belgrano was the visionary statesman who made its existence possible.
Juan Alsina Gaza 1773 - 1807: Surveyor. He was one of the most educated men in the Río de la Plata region in the late 18th century. Born in Catalonia, he arrived in Argentina in 1782 with Don Pedro Antonio Cerviño as a member of the commission tasked with demarcating the borders between Spanish and Portuguese territories. He was a skilled navigator, the viceroyalty’s chief surveyor, and an expert in mathematics and astronomy. In 1798, he proposed the creation of a navigation school, which he later sought to transform into a Nautical Academy. Together with Cerviño, he founded the first School of Nautical Science and Mathematics, of which he was appointed second director by the Consulate, reporting directly to Cerviño, in 1799. Alsina resigned after a few months and later reopened his School of Navigation; from there, he sought to discredit Cerviño. He also established an Academy of Geometry and Drawing. Alsina demonstrated his dedication to mathematical studies by publishing Astronomical Tables (1797), detailing sunrise and sunset times, corrected and expanded with various notes on time differences, for the entire viceroyalty. He authored the Almanacs printed at the Press of the Foundling Home in 1800 and 1801, based on the Buenos Aires meridian, filled with historical news and curious observations. In 1801, he planned to publish a journal, the introduction and outline of which he made known in the newspaper Análisis under the title Tratado de Filosofía Natural y Espejo de la Naturaleza, but of which no issue was ever published.
[S137] Cutolo, Vicente O., Nuevo Diccionario Biográfico Argentino, (Editorial Elche, Buenos Aires, 1968. De este diccionario se editaron varias ediciones actualizadas, hasta el 2004.). https://genealogiafamiliar.net/getperson.php?personID=I85027
Juan de Alsina lost his life (34 years old) on July 5, during the heavy street fighting in the city center (near Plaza de Mayo) as part of the desperate urban resistance against the British troops.
Juan Alsina Gaza was the father of Valentin and grandfather of Adolfo.
Juan Alsina Gaza 1773 - 1807: Surveyor. He was one of the most educated men in the Río de la Plata region in the late 18th century. Born in Catalonia, he arrived in Argentina in 1782 with Don Pedro Antonio Cerviño as a member of the commission tasked with demarcating the borders between Spanish and Portuguese territories. He was a skilled navigator, the viceroyalty’s chief surveyor, and an expert in mathematics and astronomy. In 1798, he proposed the creation of a navigation school, which he later sought to transform into a Nautical Academy. Together with Cerviño, he founded the first School of Nautical Science and Mathematics, of which he was appointed second director by the Consulate, reporting directly to Cerviño, in 1799. Alsina resigned after a few months and later reopened his School of Navigation; from there, he sought to discredit Cerviño. He also established an Academy of Geometry and Drawing. Alsina demonstrated his dedication to mathematical studies by publishing Astronomical Tables (1797), detailing sunrise and sunset times, corrected and expanded with various notes on time differences, for the entire viceroyalty. He authored the Almanacs printed at the Press of the Foundling Home in 1800 and 1801, based on the Buenos Aires meridian, filled with historical news and curious observations. In 1801, he planned to publish a journal, the introduction and outline of which he made known in the newspaper Análisis under the title Tratado de Filosofía Natural y Espejo de la Naturaleza, but of which no issue was ever published.
[S137] Cutolo, Vicente O., Nuevo Diccionario Biográfico Argentino, (Editorial Elche, Buenos Aires, 1968. De este diccionario se editaron varias ediciones actualizadas, hasta el 2004.). https://genealogiafamiliar.net/getperson.php?personID=I85027
Juan de Alsina lost his life (34 years old) on July 5, during the heavy street fighting in the city center (near Plaza de Mayo) as part of the desperate urban resistance against the British troops.
Juan Alsina Gaza was the father of Valentin and grandfather of Adolfo.
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Pedro Cerviño 1757 - 1816: Pedro Cerviño and Juan Alsina were indeed professional partners and competitors who shared a complex history as the founding leaders of the Escuela de Náutica (Nautical School) in Buenos Aires.
School Foundation In 1799, both men competed in a public examination (oposición) for the leadership of the new Nautical School. Cerviño, a Spanish military engineer, won the top position as Director, while Alsina, an expert pilot and surveyor, was appointed Vice-Director or Second Master. Despite their hierarchy, they were closely aligned with Manuel Belgrano's Enlightenment ideals, working together to modernize maritime education and scientific cartography in the Rio de la Plata. |
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Their rivalry was often characterized by their differing areas of expertise Cerviño was an engineer focused on theory and geometry, while Alsina was a practical merchant pilot and surveyor.
1807 Invasions: During the British Invasions, their professional partnership translated into military action. While Alsina died in combat leading their students in the Volunteers of the Navy, Cerviño survived and later played a significant role in the May Revolution.Their relationship is a classic example of "scientific partners" whose competing expertise helped establish the foundations of Argentine maritime and mathematical education.
1807 Invasions: During the British Invasions, their professional partnership translated into military action. While Alsina died in combat leading their students in the Volunteers of the Navy, Cerviño survived and later played a significant role in the May Revolution.Their relationship is a classic example of "scientific partners" whose competing expertise helped establish the foundations of Argentine maritime and mathematical education.
A Commonwealth Instead of a Colony - The sailor who could have saved the Spanish Empire.
The person in the portrait is Alejandro Malaspina (1754–1810), an Italian-born explorer and navigator who served as a brigadier in the Spanish Navy.
Malaspina is most famous for leading the Malaspina Expedition (1789–1794), a major scientific and political voyage under a Spanish royal commission. During this circumnavigation, he explored and documented various regions, including the Pacific Northwest, South America, and Alaska.
His career was later overshadowed by political controversy after his return to Spain, which led to his imprisonment and subsequent exile.
Alejandro Malaspina's downfall was triggered by his attempt to fundamentally reform the Spanish Empire, which led to a failed palace intrigue against the most powerful man in Spain at the time, Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy.
Upon returning from his five-year expedition in 1794, Malaspina presented a "confidential political report" recommending that Spain abandon its traditional, rigid colonial monopoly. He advocated for granting broad autonomy to the viceroyalties (such as the Río de la Plata) and transforming the empire into a confederation of states to prevent future revolutions.
These liberal, Enlightenment-inspired ideas directly opposed the traditionalist methods of Prime Minister Godoy. Malaspina viewed Godoy as the primary obstacle to necessary reform and became involved in a plot to depose him.
In November 1795, he was arrested and accused of conspiring against the state. Some evidence suggested he even sought to influence Queen María Luisa to help end Godoy's power.
After Napoleon Bonaparte and other influential figures pressured Spain for his release in 1802, Alejandro Malaspina was freed on the condition of permanent exile. He returned to his homeland in Tuscany (specifically to the Lunigiana region) and settled in the town of Pontremoli in 1803. Far from retiring in silence, he remained remarkably active in his final years.
Alejandro Malaspina is often seen as a "lost opportunity" for the Spanish Empire a visionary whose ideas might have prevented the violent wars of independence that tore the empire apart a decade later
Rio de la Plata
Alejandro Malaspina spent significant time in the Río de la Plata during his famous scientific expedition. He visited the region twice:
Initial Stop (1789): Shortly after departing from Spain, his ships, the Descubierta and Atrevida, spent about two months (September to November) in Montevideo and Buenos Aires. During this time, he and his crew investigated the political and social situation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
Return Visit (1794): On his way back to Spain, the expedition returned to the region in mid-February and stayed for an additional four months. In total, Malaspina spent about six months in the Río de la Plata.
While there, his expedition produced some of the most iconic early scientific and artistic records of the area, including detailed botanical studies and the first high-quality visual representations of the Buenos Aires shoreline.
Malaspina is most famous for leading the Malaspina Expedition (1789–1794), a major scientific and political voyage under a Spanish royal commission. During this circumnavigation, he explored and documented various regions, including the Pacific Northwest, South America, and Alaska.
His career was later overshadowed by political controversy after his return to Spain, which led to his imprisonment and subsequent exile.
Alejandro Malaspina's downfall was triggered by his attempt to fundamentally reform the Spanish Empire, which led to a failed palace intrigue against the most powerful man in Spain at the time, Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy.
Upon returning from his five-year expedition in 1794, Malaspina presented a "confidential political report" recommending that Spain abandon its traditional, rigid colonial monopoly. He advocated for granting broad autonomy to the viceroyalties (such as the Río de la Plata) and transforming the empire into a confederation of states to prevent future revolutions.
These liberal, Enlightenment-inspired ideas directly opposed the traditionalist methods of Prime Minister Godoy. Malaspina viewed Godoy as the primary obstacle to necessary reform and became involved in a plot to depose him.
In November 1795, he was arrested and accused of conspiring against the state. Some evidence suggested he even sought to influence Queen María Luisa to help end Godoy's power.
After Napoleon Bonaparte and other influential figures pressured Spain for his release in 1802, Alejandro Malaspina was freed on the condition of permanent exile. He returned to his homeland in Tuscany (specifically to the Lunigiana region) and settled in the town of Pontremoli in 1803. Far from retiring in silence, he remained remarkably active in his final years.
Alejandro Malaspina is often seen as a "lost opportunity" for the Spanish Empire a visionary whose ideas might have prevented the violent wars of independence that tore the empire apart a decade later
Rio de la Plata
Alejandro Malaspina spent significant time in the Río de la Plata during his famous scientific expedition. He visited the region twice:
Initial Stop (1789): Shortly after departing from Spain, his ships, the Descubierta and Atrevida, spent about two months (September to November) in Montevideo and Buenos Aires. During this time, he and his crew investigated the political and social situation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
Return Visit (1794): On his way back to Spain, the expedition returned to the region in mid-February and stayed for an additional four months. In total, Malaspina spent about six months in the Río de la Plata.
While there, his expedition produced some of the most iconic early scientific and artistic records of the area, including detailed botanical studies and the first high-quality visual representations of the Buenos Aires shoreline.
Left: 1801 Spanish Royal Army Light Infantry. Right: 1805 Spanish Royal Navy Marines infantry. The similarity stems from the 1802 and 1805 Regulations, which prioritized dark blue as the primary color for "specialist" troops (Marines, Light Infantry, and Artillery), while the regular Line Infantry stuck with their traditional Bourbon white coats until 1806. It gives the impression that the uniform of the Spanish marine infantry is the same as that of the infantry of the "Fijo Battalions" overseas infantry.
This image depicts soldiers of the Spanish Infantry, specifically grenadiers and fusiliers from the Guadalajara Regiment during the Napoleonic era. The illustration captures soldiers in their traditional uniforms from around 1808, just as the Peninsular War (Spanish War of Independence) was beginning. This illustration was created by the Dutch artist and printmaker Jan Anthonie Langendijk (1780–1818).
1806. The capture of the treasure of Buenos Aires.
On June 24, 1806, Viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte was attending a play with his family when he received the news that British ships had been sighted off the coast. He reportedly left the theater early to head to the Buenos Aires Fort to organize a defense.
Many of his most experienced Spanish soldiers were stationed in Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia) to suppress internal revolts, such as the one led by Túpac Amaru II.
While he did try to keep the news quiet initially to avoid a mass panic, the public quickly realized something was wrong when the British landed at Quilmes the next morning.
As the British troops under General William Carr Beresford advanced toward the city on June 27, Sobremonte fled to Córdoba with the royal treasury. His action was based on a law enacted by a former viceroy, Pedro de Cevallos, which mandated that the state's funds must be secured in the interior (safe from naval capture) in the event of a foreign attack.
Despite following the law, the people of Buenos Aires saw it as an act of cowardice and abandonment. To make matters worse, the British eventually caught up with his convoy and captured the treasury anyway.
This "weird" or controversial behavior led to an unprecedented event in Spanish colonial history: for the first time, a local assembly (the Open Cabildo) deposed a Viceroy and replaced him with a local hero, Santiago de Liniers.
The treasure at Luján was a calculated and negotiated move by Beresford, and it played a huge role in the public's perception that Viceroy Sobremonte was a coward.
While Sobremonte was fleeing toward Córdoba following the pre-existing law to secure the royal funds, he halted at Luján. Contrary to the image of a "wild chase," Beresford used a more systematic approach to get what he actually wanted: the money.
Beresford sent a small detachment of dragoons led by Captain Arbuthnot to Luján. The British threatened to treat the inhabitants of Buenos Aires with extreme severity and seize private property if the public treasury was not handed over immediately.
Facing this pressure and realizing he lacked the troops to defend the convoy, Sobremonte's officers essentially surrendered the wagons. On July 2, 1806, the British successfully took possession of over 1.2 million silver pesos (about 40 tons of silver and gold) in Luján.
The population felt betrayed because, while they were being told to submit to British rule for their own safety, the Viceroy was essentially "trading" the city's wealth to the invaders from a safe distance. Beresford's main objective was the "booty." He famously paraded the captured treasure through the streets of London in a grand victory procession later that year.
The fact that the treasure was handed over so easily in Luján was the "final straw" for the citizens of Buenos Aires, leading them to permanently depose him in favor of Liniers.
Many of his most experienced Spanish soldiers were stationed in Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia) to suppress internal revolts, such as the one led by Túpac Amaru II.
While he did try to keep the news quiet initially to avoid a mass panic, the public quickly realized something was wrong when the British landed at Quilmes the next morning.
As the British troops under General William Carr Beresford advanced toward the city on June 27, Sobremonte fled to Córdoba with the royal treasury. His action was based on a law enacted by a former viceroy, Pedro de Cevallos, which mandated that the state's funds must be secured in the interior (safe from naval capture) in the event of a foreign attack.
Despite following the law, the people of Buenos Aires saw it as an act of cowardice and abandonment. To make matters worse, the British eventually caught up with his convoy and captured the treasury anyway.
This "weird" or controversial behavior led to an unprecedented event in Spanish colonial history: for the first time, a local assembly (the Open Cabildo) deposed a Viceroy and replaced him with a local hero, Santiago de Liniers.
The treasure at Luján was a calculated and negotiated move by Beresford, and it played a huge role in the public's perception that Viceroy Sobremonte was a coward.
While Sobremonte was fleeing toward Córdoba following the pre-existing law to secure the royal funds, he halted at Luján. Contrary to the image of a "wild chase," Beresford used a more systematic approach to get what he actually wanted: the money.
Beresford sent a small detachment of dragoons led by Captain Arbuthnot to Luján. The British threatened to treat the inhabitants of Buenos Aires with extreme severity and seize private property if the public treasury was not handed over immediately.
Facing this pressure and realizing he lacked the troops to defend the convoy, Sobremonte's officers essentially surrendered the wagons. On July 2, 1806, the British successfully took possession of over 1.2 million silver pesos (about 40 tons of silver and gold) in Luján.
The population felt betrayed because, while they were being told to submit to British rule for their own safety, the Viceroy was essentially "trading" the city's wealth to the invaders from a safe distance. Beresford's main objective was the "booty." He famously paraded the captured treasure through the streets of London in a grand victory procession later that year.
The fact that the treasure was handed over so easily in Luján was the "final straw" for the citizens of Buenos Aires, leading them to permanently depose him in favor of Liniers.
The British Invasions of the Río de la Plata (1806–1807) are the essential "prologue" to the Argentine Front. They represent the exact moment when the local population realized they didn't need the Spanish Crown to survive.
At the time, Spain was an ally of Napoleon’s France. Britain, seeking to open new markets and strike at Spanish interests, sent an expeditionary force to seize Buenos Aires and Montevideo.
The First Invasion (1806): A small British force under William Carr Beresford captured Buenos Aires with ease. The Spanish Viceroy, Rafael de Sobremonte, famously fled to Córdoba with the treasury, leaving the city defenseless.
The Reconquista: It was the locals—not the Spanish army—who fought back. Led by Santiago de Liniers (the French hero we discussed), a volunteer militia of Creoles, Mestizos, and even slaves defeated and captured the British.
The Second Invasion (1807): Britain returned with a much larger force (nearly 10,000 soldiers) and captured Montevideo. However, when they tried to retake Buenos Aires, they were defeated in brutal street-to-street fighting by the newly formed local militias.
These invasions fundamentally changed the power dynamic in the Río de la Plata:
The Viceroy’s flight proved that Spain could not protect its colonies. The local people had to depose Sobremonte and elect Liniers—the first time a Viceroy was removed by the people rather than the King.
To fight the British, every man was given a gun and organized into regiments, such as the Patricios. These militias became the "muscle" that later carried out the May Revolution of 1810.
During the brief British occupation, the people tasted Free Trade with London, which was far more profitable than the restrictive Spanish monopoly.
In essence, the British Invasions provided the training, the weapons, and the confidence that allowed the "Argentine Front" to succeed just three years later. Without these failed British attempts to colonize the region, the local revolution might never have had the military strength to survive.
At the time, Spain was an ally of Napoleon’s France. Britain, seeking to open new markets and strike at Spanish interests, sent an expeditionary force to seize Buenos Aires and Montevideo.
The First Invasion (1806): A small British force under William Carr Beresford captured Buenos Aires with ease. The Spanish Viceroy, Rafael de Sobremonte, famously fled to Córdoba with the treasury, leaving the city defenseless.
The Reconquista: It was the locals—not the Spanish army—who fought back. Led by Santiago de Liniers (the French hero we discussed), a volunteer militia of Creoles, Mestizos, and even slaves defeated and captured the British.
The Second Invasion (1807): Britain returned with a much larger force (nearly 10,000 soldiers) and captured Montevideo. However, when they tried to retake Buenos Aires, they were defeated in brutal street-to-street fighting by the newly formed local militias.
These invasions fundamentally changed the power dynamic in the Río de la Plata:
The Viceroy’s flight proved that Spain could not protect its colonies. The local people had to depose Sobremonte and elect Liniers—the first time a Viceroy was removed by the people rather than the King.
To fight the British, every man was given a gun and organized into regiments, such as the Patricios. These militias became the "muscle" that later carried out the May Revolution of 1810.
During the brief British occupation, the people tasted Free Trade with London, which was far more profitable than the restrictive Spanish monopoly.
In essence, the British Invasions provided the training, the weapons, and the confidence that allowed the "Argentine Front" to succeed just three years later. Without these failed British attempts to colonize the region, the local revolution might never have had the military strength to survive.
The Escape of William Carr Beresford and Lieutenant Denis Pack
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By 1806, a segment of the local "Criollo" (Spanish-descended) elite already harbored strong pro-independence sentiments. The British invasions of the Río de la Plata acted as a catalyst, revealing that the Spanish Crown could neither protect the colony nor maintain its commercial monopoly.
The escape of Lieutenant Colonel Denis Pack (Left Image) and General William Carr Beresford in early 1807 confirmed that key local figures were actively plotting to use British influence to overthrow Spanish colonial rule. The escape was orchestrated by Saturnino Rodríguez Peña and Manuel Aniceto Padilla, two prominent "Criollos" who believed a British alliance was the only way to achieve independence from Spain. |
During the British invasions of the Río de la Plata (1806–1807), Lieutenant Colonel Denis Pack was a key figure, serving as the second-in-command of the land forces and commanding the 71st Regiment of Foot.
First Invasion (1806)
Pack led the 71st Regiment, which comprised more than half of the invading force under General William Carr Beresford. They occupied Buenos Aires in June 1806 with minimal resistance.
In August 1806, local forces led by Santiago de Liniers reconquered the city. Pack and Beresford were taken prisoner and held at the Villa of Luján. They eventually escaped to Montevideo with the help of local independence sympathizers. Several prominent pro-independence sympathizers actively collaborated with the British, seeing them as a strategic tool to end Spanish rule. Their cooperation was primarily political and logistical rather than military.
The British party
Some wealthy families and local politicians initially welcomed the British, lured by the promise of Free Trade. For years, the Spanish monopoly had stifled the local economy, and the British immediately opened the port to international commerce, which many locals hoped would continue under an independent or British-protected state.
Second Invasion (1807)
Upon his capture in 1806, Pack had reportedly taken an oath never again to take up arms against Spain. However, he broke this promise to join the second campaign under General Robert Craufurd.
Battle of San Pedro
On June 7, 1807, Pack led a force that defeated Spanish colonial troops at San Pedro, near Colonia del Sacramento. This action was the "baptism of fire" for several local units, including the Regiment of Patricians.
During the disastrous final assault on Buenos Aires in July 1807, Pack’s column occupied the Convent of Santo Domingo. Surrounded by roughly 5,000 Spanish soldiers and facing heavy fire, he and General Craufurd were forced to surrender once again.
Due to his broken oath of neutrality, local citizens reportedly sought to execute Pack for perjury. He was protected by Dominican friars until he could be safely handed over during the British retreat.
First Invasion (1806)
Pack led the 71st Regiment, which comprised more than half of the invading force under General William Carr Beresford. They occupied Buenos Aires in June 1806 with minimal resistance.
In August 1806, local forces led by Santiago de Liniers reconquered the city. Pack and Beresford were taken prisoner and held at the Villa of Luján. They eventually escaped to Montevideo with the help of local independence sympathizers. Several prominent pro-independence sympathizers actively collaborated with the British, seeing them as a strategic tool to end Spanish rule. Their cooperation was primarily political and logistical rather than military.
The British party
Some wealthy families and local politicians initially welcomed the British, lured by the promise of Free Trade. For years, the Spanish monopoly had stifled the local economy, and the British immediately opened the port to international commerce, which many locals hoped would continue under an independent or British-protected state.
Second Invasion (1807)
Upon his capture in 1806, Pack had reportedly taken an oath never again to take up arms against Spain. However, he broke this promise to join the second campaign under General Robert Craufurd.
Battle of San Pedro
On June 7, 1807, Pack led a force that defeated Spanish colonial troops at San Pedro, near Colonia del Sacramento. This action was the "baptism of fire" for several local units, including the Regiment of Patricians.
During the disastrous final assault on Buenos Aires in July 1807, Pack’s column occupied the Convent of Santo Domingo. Surrounded by roughly 5,000 Spanish soldiers and facing heavy fire, he and General Craufurd were forced to surrender once again.
Due to his broken oath of neutrality, local citizens reportedly sought to execute Pack for perjury. He was protected by Dominican friars until he could be safely handed over during the British retreat.
The Dragoons were a form of horse infantry hybrid soldiers trained to ride into position quickly and then dismount to fight on foot. While they were officially classed as "medium" or "light" cavalry in the Spanish system, their tactical function in the River Plate region was highly versatile.
The Regimiento Fijo de Dragones de Buenos Aires primary combat role involved using horses for strategic mobility to reach critical points—such as bridges, fords and forts and then dismounting to engage the enemy with muskets.
Frontier Defense. They were frequently used for internal security and to patrol the vast frontiers against raids, as their horses allowed them to cover distances that foot infantry could not.
Beyond the battlefield, they acted as a mobile police force to control smuggling, civil unrest, and rural crime.
They provided security for important supply trains, depots, and high-ranking officials in the viceroyalty.
During the British Invasions (1806–1807), this flexibility was vital. While traditional cavalry might struggle in the dense urban streets of Buenos Aires, the Dragoons could fight effectively as line infantry. However, unlike pure infantry, they retained their sabers and basic equestrian training, allowing them to perform light cavalry tasks like scouting, messenger service, and pursuing routed enemies when needed.
The dragons had a sword and a feather embroidered on their necks. Curiously, the same symbol that Juan Manuel de Rosas' uniform had as a captain of militias around 1830-40.
The Regimiento Fijo de Dragones de Buenos Aires primary combat role involved using horses for strategic mobility to reach critical points—such as bridges, fords and forts and then dismounting to engage the enemy with muskets.
Frontier Defense. They were frequently used for internal security and to patrol the vast frontiers against raids, as their horses allowed them to cover distances that foot infantry could not.
Beyond the battlefield, they acted as a mobile police force to control smuggling, civil unrest, and rural crime.
They provided security for important supply trains, depots, and high-ranking officials in the viceroyalty.
During the British Invasions (1806–1807), this flexibility was vital. While traditional cavalry might struggle in the dense urban streets of Buenos Aires, the Dragoons could fight effectively as line infantry. However, unlike pure infantry, they retained their sabers and basic equestrian training, allowing them to perform light cavalry tasks like scouting, messenger service, and pursuing routed enemies when needed.
The dragons had a sword and a feather embroidered on their necks. Curiously, the same symbol that Juan Manuel de Rosas' uniform had as a captain of militias around 1830-40.
Old templates titled "Regimientos Veteranos de Buenos Aires". These drawings are in the General Archive of the Nation.
These were proposals for new uniforms in 1805 for the veteran battalions, the FIJO de Infanteria and the FIJo de Dragoons. These uniforms were not adopted due to Napoleon's invasion of Spain (The uniforms were made in Spain).
The uniform proposed for the dragons in 1805 is very similar to that of the King's Dragoons in the plates of 1805 in Spain. The color was technically yellow (amarillo), but in practice, it often appeared as buff (ante). The brown uniform was the summer and fatigue (work) dress for the veteran units. Note the reinforcements on the riding pants.
These were proposals for new uniforms in 1805 for the veteran battalions, the FIJO de Infanteria and the FIJo de Dragoons. These uniforms were not adopted due to Napoleon's invasion of Spain (The uniforms were made in Spain).
The uniform proposed for the dragons in 1805 is very similar to that of the King's Dragoons in the plates of 1805 in Spain. The color was technically yellow (amarillo), but in practice, it often appeared as buff (ante). The brown uniform was the summer and fatigue (work) dress for the veteran units. Note the reinforcements on the riding pants.
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The 1805 regulations replaced the previous 1802, which had briefly introduced deep sky blue coats for the infantry.
The 1805 reform restored the traditional white coats that had been the standard for the Spanish Bourbon army for most of the 18th century. The blue uniform became the official national uniform for the Spanish Line Infantry again on December 12, 1811. Because the Napoleonic invasion and the British naval blockade effectively severed ties with the factories in Barcelona and Segovia, the 1805 updates remained "on paper" only for many units in Buenos Aires. In the Río de la Plata, as probably in other colonial administrations, the uniforms remained without that update, for that reason they remained in blue, and that blue continued during independence and beyond. |
This is a recreation of the "Fijo" (Regular Army) infantry battalion of Buenos Aires around 1809 using AI technology. It may not be accurate. Although the shako had already appeared in the Río de la Plata before the May Revolution, the bicorn was still the most common. The overseas units were dressed according to the ordinances of Spain. This did not ensure that each regional administration had some differences.
In general, the summer uniform included lightweight white pants and was also worn internally in the barracks. The rest of the seasons of the year, especially for parades and events was blue jacket and trousers, black felt leggings fastened with buttons.
The flag of the Cross of Burgundy bears the coat of arms of Buenos Aires at its ends. It is important to note the white summer uniform, widely used by royalist forces during the war, especially in jungle areas.
In general, the summer uniform included lightweight white pants and was also worn internally in the barracks. The rest of the seasons of the year, especially for parades and events was blue jacket and trousers, black felt leggings fastened with buttons.
The flag of the Cross of Burgundy bears the coat of arms of Buenos Aires at its ends. It is important to note the white summer uniform, widely used by royalist forces during the war, especially in jungle areas.
AI recreation of the Grenadier Company of the Fixed Infantry Regiment of Buenos Aires around 1805.
Regiment Fernando VII
To put down the revolts in Chuquisaca and La Paz (Upper Peru, today Bolivia), the viceroy of the Río de la Plata, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, sent a contingent of 500 men from Buenos Aires under the command of Field Marshal Vicente Nieto and the Frigate Captain José de Córdoba.
This expedition set out on October 4, 1809, organized into three divisions with veterans of the Buenos Aires "Fijo" Infantry Regiment, the Buenos Aires Dragoons Regiment and the Royal Artillery Corps, together with a marine company and others from the militia corps formed during the English invasions: patricians, arribeños, mountaineers, Andalusians and artillerymen of the Union.
The expedition sent by Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros in August 1809 was designed to re-establish Spanish authority in Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia). it consisted of approximately 500 to 1,000 men drawn from several veteran and volunteer units based in Buenos Aires.
Regimiento Fijo de Buenos Aires: Two companies of this regular Spanish infantry unit formed the professional core of the expedition.
Cuerpo de Marina (Marinos): Led by José de Córdoba y Rojas, this unit included naval personnel and volunteers who had previously distinguished themselves during the British Invasions.
Regimiento de Patricios: A significant detachment from this elite Creole volunteer militia was included. Their presence was intended to show colonial loyalty, though many of these same men would soon turn against the Crown in 1810.
The force also included elements from the Regimiento de Montañeses, Regimiento de Andaluces, and a detachment of Artillery Voluntarios Artilleros de la Union).
When the news of the May Revolution (1810) reached Upper Peru, Vicente Nieto took swift and repressive action against the troops he had brought with him from Buenos Aires. Knowing that many of his soldiers especially the Patricios and the Arribeños sympathized with the revolutionary cause in their home city, Nieto performed what was essentially a "purge" of his own forces. He ordered the Patricios, Arribeños, and other volunteer units to be disarmed and arrested several officers and soldiers whom he suspected of being "infected" by the revolutionary ideas of the Primera Junta.
Many of these soldiers were not just arrested but were condemned to forced labor in the mines (socavones) of Potosí or "Minas del Potosi". This was considered a particularly brutal punishment, as working in the silver mines was often a death sentence due to the conditions.
Incorporation into Royalist Units.
The soldiers who were not imprisoned were often forcibly integrated into regular Spanish "Veteran" units to keep them under strict Peninsular supervision.
With the veterans of the Fixed Infantry Regiment of Buenos Aires he formed the veteran companies of the Real Borbón. His units in Buenos Aires were incorporated into the army of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata,
Nieto formed the "Cuerpo de Voluntarios del Rey", King's Corps of Volunteers with the Andalusian, (Andaluces) and mountaineers (Montañeses) militiamen who agreed to join the royalist forces.
Vicente Nieto created the Regimiento Fernando VII (Regiment Ferdinand VII). The Regimiento Fernando VII became a cornerstone of the Royalist defense in the north.
Historical evidence supports that a battalion of the Regimiento Fernando VII carried the "antigua bandera del Fijo de Buenos Aires" (the old flag of the Regimiento Fijo de Buenos Aires) during the wars of independence.
Battle of Cotagaita: They successfully repelled the first Patriot advance from Buenos Aires.
Battle of Suipacha: This was their downfall. The regiment, along with the rest of the Royalist force led by Córdoba and Nieto, was crushed by the Patriot army.
In March 1811, the remnants of the Royal Bourbon Regiment and the King's Volunteer Corps formed the Fernando VII Battalion within the army that Brigadier José Manuel de Goyeneche was preparing at the Zepita camp, near the Desaguadero River , for intervention in Upper Peru.
By the time of the later campaigns (like the Battle of Huaqui in 1811), the unit was more clearly defined under the "Fernando VII" banner and they carried the flags of the Buenos Aires Fixed Regiment.
In December, they advanced to Oruro and Chayanta as part of the Central Division under Colonel Pablo Astete . This division was completed by seven companies of the Abancay Regiment, an artillery company from the Quispicanchis Regiment, and the Tinta Dragoons.
With the military reorganizations and maneuvers in Upper Peru following Royalist Triumph in the Battle of Huaqui or Guaqui in 1811.Some veteran soldiers who had served in the Royal Bourbon Battalion were incorporated into the Potosí Provincial Volunteer Battalion.
The Batallón de Voluntarios Provinciales de Potosí, veteran soldiers from the Batallón Real Borbón the elite professional core formed from the Regimiento Fijo de Buenos Aires were integrated into the Batallón de Voluntarios Provinciales de Potosí. This integration was a tactical move by Royalist commanders to bolster local militia units with experienced, regular troops.
The Attack on Oruro (November 16, 1811)
Under the command of Colonel Indalecio González de Socasa, this battalion successfully repelled the Patriot forces led by Colonel Esteban Arce.
After his victory at Aroma in 1810, Arce attempted to secure Oruro to maintain a revolutionary foothold in the Altiplano. Socasa’s disciplined force, reinforced by the Real Borbón veterans, forced Arce to retreat, stalling the Patriot advance in the region.
The Attack on Oruro (November 16, 1811)
Under the command of Colonel Indalecio González de Socasa, this battalion successfully repelled the Patriot forces led by Colonel Esteban Arce.
After his victory at Aroma in 1810, Arce attempted to secure Oruro to maintain a revolutionary foothold in the Altiplano. Socasa’s disciplined force, reinforced by the Real Borbón veterans, forced Arce to retreat, stalling the Patriot advance in the region.
Manuevers in Chayanta (January 1812)
Following the setback at Oruro, Esteban Arce shifted his focus to the province of Chayanta. On January 18, 1812, Arce successfully dislodged the Royalist commander Astete from Chayanta.This move was part of Arce's broader "war of the republiquetas," characterized by guerrilla-style maneuvers and sudden strikes against Spanish outposts to keep Royalist forces divided across the rugged terrain of Upper Peru.
The Regimiento Fernando VII eventually became the overarching designation for many of these consolidated Royalist units, continuing to carry the legacy (and sometimes the flags) of the original Buenos Aires regular army into the final battles of the independence wars.
The Fernando VII Battalion, under the command of Captain Manuel Vidal , joined the Vanguard Division, which, under Brigadier Pío Tristán, was stationed in Tupiza and subsequently advanced on Jujuy and Salta .
On September 1st, they continued their advance towards Tucumán , where the battalion's first commander, Colonel Huici, was taken prisoner at the Battle of Las Piedras on September 3rd.
On September 24, 1812, the battalion was among the forces defeated at the Battle of Tucumán , fighting on the right flank against the cavalry militia and the Pardos y Morenos Battalion. Its remnants retreated after the battle towards the city of Salta.
Tucumán and Salta
The battalion in Salta numbered 120 men: the 1st Company under Captain Manuel Vidal and the 2nd Company under Captain Juan Nava, forming a unit with the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Regiment of Lima. On February 20, 1813, Manuel Belgrano achieved victory at the Battle of Salta , with the soldiers of the Fernando VII Battalion surrendering along with the rest of the defeated forces. In exchange for their oath not to take up arms again against the United Provinces, Belgrano guaranteed Tristan and his men their freedom.
The royalist soldiers who had sworn allegiance in Salta, upon arriving in Oruro, were relieved of their oath by the Viceroy of Peru and largely rejoined the army. The rest of the battalion was merged in early 1815 with the Potosi Provincial Militia Battalion.
Sipe-Sipe (Or Viluma)
On November 29, 1815, the Fernando VII Battalion, under the command of Commander Francisco Javier Aguilera , was among the royalist forces commanded by Joaquín de la Pezuela that triumphed at the Battle of Sipe Sipe. A few days after Pezuela entered Cochabamba , he dispatched Colonel Aguilera to Vallegrande with the Fernando VII Battalion to reinforce his forces and continue on to Santa Cruz de la Sierra , where he was to assume the governorship.
War of the Republiquetas in Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia)
The Battle of La Laguna (September 13–14, 1816) remains one of the most brutal and decisive engagements of the War of the Republiquetas, marking the destruction of the Republiqueta de La Laguna and the death of its legendary leader, Manuel Ascencio Padilla.
General Juan Ramírez Orozco designed a multi-pronged offensive to eliminate the guerrilla threat in the Charcas region
The Main Column, led by Colonel Francisco Javier Aguilera, consisting of 700 men from the veteran Talavera (a Peninsular unit from Spain) and Fernando VII battalions.
The Second Column: Led by Miguel Tacón, advancing from Chuquisaca to trap Padilla’s forces.
The Battle and Padilla's Death. It was a brutal, asymmetric war fought in some of the most difficult terrain on earth. Unlike the large-scale set-piece battles in the lowlands, the War of the Republiquetas was defined by Anti-Guerrilla Tactics
The clash took place on September 13 at La Laguna. Despite the fierce resistance of the guerrilla forces (including Padilla's wife, Juana Azurduy, who was wounded in the engagement), the discipline and firepower of the Royalist regular infantry specifically the Talavera overwhelmed the rebels.
The Royalist victory was absolute. In addition to the 700 guerrillas killed in action, Aguilera ordered the summary execution of 76 prisoners, reflecting the "War to the Death" nature of the conflict in Upper Peru.
This battle solidified Aguilera's reputation as a ruthless and effective Royalist commander. The Batallón Fernando VII, carrying the veteran lineage of the Fijo de Buenos Aires, proved its effectiveness in high-altitude, asymmetrical warfare.
The Battle of El Pari 1816
The Battle of El Pari (November 21, 1816) is historically regarded as the bloodiest engagement of the South American wars of independence due to its staggering casualty rate. Fought just outside Santa Cruz de la Sierra, the battle lasted over seven hours and resulted in the near-total destruction of both participating armies.
The Combatants & Order of Battle
The Royalist force, commanded by Colonel Francisco Xavier de Aguilera, numbered approximately 1,600 men and was composed of elite veteran units:
Batallón Fernando VII (500 men): The unit carrying the legacy of the Fijo de Buenos Aires and the Real Borbón regulars.
Batallón Talavera de la Reina (500 men): A fierce Peninsular unit from Spain renowned for its discipline.
Cavalry (500 men): Two divisions from Cochabamba.
Artillery (100 men): Two field pieces.
Opposing them was Ignacio Warnes, leader of the "Republiqueta de Santa Cruz," with roughly 1,000 to 1,200 men, including a mix of Creoles, indigenous people, and the famous "Pardos Libre" (free black soldiers).
A Battle of Total Annihilation
The combat was noted for its extreme brutality, ending with a survival rate rarely seen in Napoleonic-era warfare:
Royalist Survival: Only about 200 to 250 of Aguilera's 1,600 men survived the clash.
Patriot Survival: Only 350 of Warnes'
troops remained, with many executed shortly after the battle.
Ignacio Warnes was killed toward the end of the struggle. Reports vary on whether he was hit by a cannonball or shot while trapped under his fallen horse, but he was ultimately finished off with a bayonet.
Following the victory, Aguilera entered Santa Cruz effectively ending the organized revolutionary resistance in that region.
The Fernando VII Battalion was annihilated and Aguilera became the new royalist governor of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, with the battalion remaining with him and beginning to be rebuilt.
The "Serna Reforms" (1817)
The arrival of General José de la Serna in 1816–1817 marked a "professionalization" turning point for the Royalist Army of Upper Peru. La Serna was a veteran of the Peninsular War against Napoleon, and he was shocked by the "militia style" and lack of discipline he found in the American theater. He brought a "Spanish school" of warfare that transformed the units.
La Serna’s goal was to turn local loyalist units into a mirror image of the Spanish regular army.
He formally organized the disparate battalions into structured regiments. The Regimiento Fernando VII was officially consolidated here, absorbing those survivors of the brutal battles like El Pari.
He placed the most experienced troops, including parts of the Fernando VII and the Talavera, under aggressive commanders like Aguilera and Canterac and moved away from static defense and toward "hunting" columns. This is why Aguilera was so successful in tracking down and decapitating the Republiquetas.
After the bloodbath at El Pari, Aguilera became the "strongman" of Santa Cruz. Under La Serna's new structure. He remained the commander in the Santa Cruz region, but his Fernando VII battalion was now part of a larger, better-supplied imperial machine. They were re-equipped with better muskets and, importantly, new uniforms that followed the 1815-1818 Spanish regulations often the dark blue or green "American style".
Interestingly, La Serna’s reforms caused tension. He favored "European" officers (like those in the Talavera) over the local "American" Royalists (like Aguilera, who was born in Santa Cruz). This internal friction between the "Peninsulares" (Serna’s circle) and the "Crureños/Mestizos" (Aguilera’s circle) would eventually weaken the Royalist cause from within.
Olañeta's Rebellion
On January 22, 1824, an internal struggle began between the royalists of Peru and Upper Peru, when the absolutist military leader of Upper Peru, Pedro Antonio Olañeta , refused to recognize the authority of the liberal viceroy of Peru, José de la Serna (Liberal) . Detachments of the regiment stationed in Vallegrande participated in the actions against the army of Jerónimo Valdés , which had been sent by the viceroy to subdue Olañeta.
Once Valdés retreated to Peru, during the month of October Olañeta occupied Cochabamba with 2000 soldiers, including the 600 of the 1st Battalion of the Fernando VII Regiment of Aguilera.
The Battle of Ayacucho 1824
Ayacucho and the end of the regiment took place on December 9, 1824 The Battle of Ayacucho , marking the end of Spanish rule in South America. A portion of the Fernando VII Regiment, carrying the old flag of the Buenos Aires Fixed Regiment, fought under the command of José Carratalá and was included in the Capitulation of Ayacucho .
Once Antonio José de Sucre entered Upper Peru, Colonel José Martínez led a revolt in Cochabamba with the 1st Battalion of the Fernando VII Regiment, which was renamed the Libertadores Battalion . While en route to Cochabamba to suppress the uprising there, on January 26, 1825, the 2nd Battalion of the Fernando VII Regiment revolted in Chilón, taking Aguilera prisoner, though he managed to escape.
In Santa Cruz de la Sierra, José Manuel Mercado entered the city on February 14, and the royalist garrison joined the revolutionary forces. Aguilera fled to the region between Santa Cruz and Vallegrande (the Yungas of Arepucho) until on October 14, 1828, he led a royalist uprising in the city of Vallegrande, but was defeated by Anselmo Ribas on October 30, 1828. He managed to escape but was captured and shot on November 23, 1828, near Vallegrande.
This expedition set out on October 4, 1809, organized into three divisions with veterans of the Buenos Aires "Fijo" Infantry Regiment, the Buenos Aires Dragoons Regiment and the Royal Artillery Corps, together with a marine company and others from the militia corps formed during the English invasions: patricians, arribeños, mountaineers, Andalusians and artillerymen of the Union.
The expedition sent by Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros in August 1809 was designed to re-establish Spanish authority in Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia). it consisted of approximately 500 to 1,000 men drawn from several veteran and volunteer units based in Buenos Aires.
Regimiento Fijo de Buenos Aires: Two companies of this regular Spanish infantry unit formed the professional core of the expedition.
Cuerpo de Marina (Marinos): Led by José de Córdoba y Rojas, this unit included naval personnel and volunteers who had previously distinguished themselves during the British Invasions.
Regimiento de Patricios: A significant detachment from this elite Creole volunteer militia was included. Their presence was intended to show colonial loyalty, though many of these same men would soon turn against the Crown in 1810.
The force also included elements from the Regimiento de Montañeses, Regimiento de Andaluces, and a detachment of Artillery Voluntarios Artilleros de la Union).
When the news of the May Revolution (1810) reached Upper Peru, Vicente Nieto took swift and repressive action against the troops he had brought with him from Buenos Aires. Knowing that many of his soldiers especially the Patricios and the Arribeños sympathized with the revolutionary cause in their home city, Nieto performed what was essentially a "purge" of his own forces. He ordered the Patricios, Arribeños, and other volunteer units to be disarmed and arrested several officers and soldiers whom he suspected of being "infected" by the revolutionary ideas of the Primera Junta.
Many of these soldiers were not just arrested but were condemned to forced labor in the mines (socavones) of Potosí or "Minas del Potosi". This was considered a particularly brutal punishment, as working in the silver mines was often a death sentence due to the conditions.
Incorporation into Royalist Units.
The soldiers who were not imprisoned were often forcibly integrated into regular Spanish "Veteran" units to keep them under strict Peninsular supervision.
With the veterans of the Fixed Infantry Regiment of Buenos Aires he formed the veteran companies of the Real Borbón. His units in Buenos Aires were incorporated into the army of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata,
Nieto formed the "Cuerpo de Voluntarios del Rey", King's Corps of Volunteers with the Andalusian, (Andaluces) and mountaineers (Montañeses) militiamen who agreed to join the royalist forces.
Vicente Nieto created the Regimiento Fernando VII (Regiment Ferdinand VII). The Regimiento Fernando VII became a cornerstone of the Royalist defense in the north.
Historical evidence supports that a battalion of the Regimiento Fernando VII carried the "antigua bandera del Fijo de Buenos Aires" (the old flag of the Regimiento Fijo de Buenos Aires) during the wars of independence.
Battle of Cotagaita: They successfully repelled the first Patriot advance from Buenos Aires.
Battle of Suipacha: This was their downfall. The regiment, along with the rest of the Royalist force led by Córdoba and Nieto, was crushed by the Patriot army.
In March 1811, the remnants of the Royal Bourbon Regiment and the King's Volunteer Corps formed the Fernando VII Battalion within the army that Brigadier José Manuel de Goyeneche was preparing at the Zepita camp, near the Desaguadero River , for intervention in Upper Peru.
By the time of the later campaigns (like the Battle of Huaqui in 1811), the unit was more clearly defined under the "Fernando VII" banner and they carried the flags of the Buenos Aires Fixed Regiment.
In December, they advanced to Oruro and Chayanta as part of the Central Division under Colonel Pablo Astete . This division was completed by seven companies of the Abancay Regiment, an artillery company from the Quispicanchis Regiment, and the Tinta Dragoons.
With the military reorganizations and maneuvers in Upper Peru following Royalist Triumph in the Battle of Huaqui or Guaqui in 1811.Some veteran soldiers who had served in the Royal Bourbon Battalion were incorporated into the Potosí Provincial Volunteer Battalion.
The Batallón de Voluntarios Provinciales de Potosí, veteran soldiers from the Batallón Real Borbón the elite professional core formed from the Regimiento Fijo de Buenos Aires were integrated into the Batallón de Voluntarios Provinciales de Potosí. This integration was a tactical move by Royalist commanders to bolster local militia units with experienced, regular troops.
The Attack on Oruro (November 16, 1811)
Under the command of Colonel Indalecio González de Socasa, this battalion successfully repelled the Patriot forces led by Colonel Esteban Arce.
After his victory at Aroma in 1810, Arce attempted to secure Oruro to maintain a revolutionary foothold in the Altiplano. Socasa’s disciplined force, reinforced by the Real Borbón veterans, forced Arce to retreat, stalling the Patriot advance in the region.
The Attack on Oruro (November 16, 1811)
Under the command of Colonel Indalecio González de Socasa, this battalion successfully repelled the Patriot forces led by Colonel Esteban Arce.
After his victory at Aroma in 1810, Arce attempted to secure Oruro to maintain a revolutionary foothold in the Altiplano. Socasa’s disciplined force, reinforced by the Real Borbón veterans, forced Arce to retreat, stalling the Patriot advance in the region.
Manuevers in Chayanta (January 1812)
Following the setback at Oruro, Esteban Arce shifted his focus to the province of Chayanta. On January 18, 1812, Arce successfully dislodged the Royalist commander Astete from Chayanta.This move was part of Arce's broader "war of the republiquetas," characterized by guerrilla-style maneuvers and sudden strikes against Spanish outposts to keep Royalist forces divided across the rugged terrain of Upper Peru.
The Regimiento Fernando VII eventually became the overarching designation for many of these consolidated Royalist units, continuing to carry the legacy (and sometimes the flags) of the original Buenos Aires regular army into the final battles of the independence wars.
The Fernando VII Battalion, under the command of Captain Manuel Vidal , joined the Vanguard Division, which, under Brigadier Pío Tristán, was stationed in Tupiza and subsequently advanced on Jujuy and Salta .
On September 1st, they continued their advance towards Tucumán , where the battalion's first commander, Colonel Huici, was taken prisoner at the Battle of Las Piedras on September 3rd.
On September 24, 1812, the battalion was among the forces defeated at the Battle of Tucumán , fighting on the right flank against the cavalry militia and the Pardos y Morenos Battalion. Its remnants retreated after the battle towards the city of Salta.
Tucumán and Salta
The battalion in Salta numbered 120 men: the 1st Company under Captain Manuel Vidal and the 2nd Company under Captain Juan Nava, forming a unit with the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Regiment of Lima. On February 20, 1813, Manuel Belgrano achieved victory at the Battle of Salta , with the soldiers of the Fernando VII Battalion surrendering along with the rest of the defeated forces. In exchange for their oath not to take up arms again against the United Provinces, Belgrano guaranteed Tristan and his men their freedom.
The royalist soldiers who had sworn allegiance in Salta, upon arriving in Oruro, were relieved of their oath by the Viceroy of Peru and largely rejoined the army. The rest of the battalion was merged in early 1815 with the Potosi Provincial Militia Battalion.
Sipe-Sipe (Or Viluma)
On November 29, 1815, the Fernando VII Battalion, under the command of Commander Francisco Javier Aguilera , was among the royalist forces commanded by Joaquín de la Pezuela that triumphed at the Battle of Sipe Sipe. A few days after Pezuela entered Cochabamba , he dispatched Colonel Aguilera to Vallegrande with the Fernando VII Battalion to reinforce his forces and continue on to Santa Cruz de la Sierra , where he was to assume the governorship.
War of the Republiquetas in Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia)
The Battle of La Laguna (September 13–14, 1816) remains one of the most brutal and decisive engagements of the War of the Republiquetas, marking the destruction of the Republiqueta de La Laguna and the death of its legendary leader, Manuel Ascencio Padilla.
General Juan Ramírez Orozco designed a multi-pronged offensive to eliminate the guerrilla threat in the Charcas region
The Main Column, led by Colonel Francisco Javier Aguilera, consisting of 700 men from the veteran Talavera (a Peninsular unit from Spain) and Fernando VII battalions.
The Second Column: Led by Miguel Tacón, advancing from Chuquisaca to trap Padilla’s forces.
The Battle and Padilla's Death. It was a brutal, asymmetric war fought in some of the most difficult terrain on earth. Unlike the large-scale set-piece battles in the lowlands, the War of the Republiquetas was defined by Anti-Guerrilla Tactics
The clash took place on September 13 at La Laguna. Despite the fierce resistance of the guerrilla forces (including Padilla's wife, Juana Azurduy, who was wounded in the engagement), the discipline and firepower of the Royalist regular infantry specifically the Talavera overwhelmed the rebels.
The Royalist victory was absolute. In addition to the 700 guerrillas killed in action, Aguilera ordered the summary execution of 76 prisoners, reflecting the "War to the Death" nature of the conflict in Upper Peru.
This battle solidified Aguilera's reputation as a ruthless and effective Royalist commander. The Batallón Fernando VII, carrying the veteran lineage of the Fijo de Buenos Aires, proved its effectiveness in high-altitude, asymmetrical warfare.
The Battle of El Pari 1816
The Battle of El Pari (November 21, 1816) is historically regarded as the bloodiest engagement of the South American wars of independence due to its staggering casualty rate. Fought just outside Santa Cruz de la Sierra, the battle lasted over seven hours and resulted in the near-total destruction of both participating armies.
The Combatants & Order of Battle
The Royalist force, commanded by Colonel Francisco Xavier de Aguilera, numbered approximately 1,600 men and was composed of elite veteran units:
Batallón Fernando VII (500 men): The unit carrying the legacy of the Fijo de Buenos Aires and the Real Borbón regulars.
Batallón Talavera de la Reina (500 men): A fierce Peninsular unit from Spain renowned for its discipline.
Cavalry (500 men): Two divisions from Cochabamba.
Artillery (100 men): Two field pieces.
Opposing them was Ignacio Warnes, leader of the "Republiqueta de Santa Cruz," with roughly 1,000 to 1,200 men, including a mix of Creoles, indigenous people, and the famous "Pardos Libre" (free black soldiers).
A Battle of Total Annihilation
The combat was noted for its extreme brutality, ending with a survival rate rarely seen in Napoleonic-era warfare:
Royalist Survival: Only about 200 to 250 of Aguilera's 1,600 men survived the clash.
Patriot Survival: Only 350 of Warnes'
troops remained, with many executed shortly after the battle.
Ignacio Warnes was killed toward the end of the struggle. Reports vary on whether he was hit by a cannonball or shot while trapped under his fallen horse, but he was ultimately finished off with a bayonet.
Following the victory, Aguilera entered Santa Cruz effectively ending the organized revolutionary resistance in that region.
The Fernando VII Battalion was annihilated and Aguilera became the new royalist governor of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, with the battalion remaining with him and beginning to be rebuilt.
The "Serna Reforms" (1817)
The arrival of General José de la Serna in 1816–1817 marked a "professionalization" turning point for the Royalist Army of Upper Peru. La Serna was a veteran of the Peninsular War against Napoleon, and he was shocked by the "militia style" and lack of discipline he found in the American theater. He brought a "Spanish school" of warfare that transformed the units.
La Serna’s goal was to turn local loyalist units into a mirror image of the Spanish regular army.
He formally organized the disparate battalions into structured regiments. The Regimiento Fernando VII was officially consolidated here, absorbing those survivors of the brutal battles like El Pari.
He placed the most experienced troops, including parts of the Fernando VII and the Talavera, under aggressive commanders like Aguilera and Canterac and moved away from static defense and toward "hunting" columns. This is why Aguilera was so successful in tracking down and decapitating the Republiquetas.
After the bloodbath at El Pari, Aguilera became the "strongman" of Santa Cruz. Under La Serna's new structure. He remained the commander in the Santa Cruz region, but his Fernando VII battalion was now part of a larger, better-supplied imperial machine. They were re-equipped with better muskets and, importantly, new uniforms that followed the 1815-1818 Spanish regulations often the dark blue or green "American style".
Interestingly, La Serna’s reforms caused tension. He favored "European" officers (like those in the Talavera) over the local "American" Royalists (like Aguilera, who was born in Santa Cruz). This internal friction between the "Peninsulares" (Serna’s circle) and the "Crureños/Mestizos" (Aguilera’s circle) would eventually weaken the Royalist cause from within.
Olañeta's Rebellion
On January 22, 1824, an internal struggle began between the royalists of Peru and Upper Peru, when the absolutist military leader of Upper Peru, Pedro Antonio Olañeta , refused to recognize the authority of the liberal viceroy of Peru, José de la Serna (Liberal) . Detachments of the regiment stationed in Vallegrande participated in the actions against the army of Jerónimo Valdés , which had been sent by the viceroy to subdue Olañeta.
Once Valdés retreated to Peru, during the month of October Olañeta occupied Cochabamba with 2000 soldiers, including the 600 of the 1st Battalion of the Fernando VII Regiment of Aguilera.
The Battle of Ayacucho 1824
Ayacucho and the end of the regiment took place on December 9, 1824 The Battle of Ayacucho , marking the end of Spanish rule in South America. A portion of the Fernando VII Regiment, carrying the old flag of the Buenos Aires Fixed Regiment, fought under the command of José Carratalá and was included in the Capitulation of Ayacucho .
Once Antonio José de Sucre entered Upper Peru, Colonel José Martínez led a revolt in Cochabamba with the 1st Battalion of the Fernando VII Regiment, which was renamed the Libertadores Battalion . While en route to Cochabamba to suppress the uprising there, on January 26, 1825, the 2nd Battalion of the Fernando VII Regiment revolted in Chilón, taking Aguilera prisoner, though he managed to escape.
In Santa Cruz de la Sierra, José Manuel Mercado entered the city on February 14, and the royalist garrison joined the revolutionary forces. Aguilera fled to the region between Santa Cruz and Vallegrande (the Yungas of Arepucho) until on October 14, 1828, he led a royalist uprising in the city of Vallegrande, but was defeated by Anselmo Ribas on October 30, 1828. He managed to escape but was captured and shot on November 23, 1828, near Vallegrande.
The Rio de la Plata Front
The Rio de la Plata or Argentine Front (1810–1824) is unique because, after the initial revolution, the territory of modern-day Argentina was never successfully reconquered by Spain. Instead, Argentina became the "Revolutionary Headquarters" that exported independence to Chile, Peru, and Bolivia.
I. The Birth of the Revolution (1810)
May 25, 1810: The May Revolution – The Primera Junta deposes Viceroy Liniers. This begins the transition from a "Mask of Ferdinand" (loyalty to the King) to total independence.
August 1810: Execution of Liniers – The revolutionaries execute the former hero of the British Invasions for leading a counter-revolution in Córdoba.
II. The War of Three Fronts (1811–1815)
Buenos Aires fought a defensive-offensive war in three different directions simultaneously:
The Paraguayan Front (1811): Belgrano is defeated by Paraguayan militias at Tacuarí, leading to Paraguay's independent path.
The Banda Oriental (Uruguay) Front: Forces from Buenos Aires and local leader Artigas besiege the Royalist stronghold of Montevideo, which finally falls in 1814.
The Upper Peru (Bolivian) Front: The Army of the North wins at Tucumán (1812) and Salta (1813) but is crushed in the high mountains of Upper Peru, leading to a permanent stalemate in the Andes.
III. The Strategic Shift (1816–1817)
July 9, 1816: Declaration of Independence – The Congress of Tucumán officially declares the independence of the United Provinces of South America.
January 1817: The Crossing of the Andes – Realizing the northern route through Bolivia is blocked, José de San Martín leads his army across the mountains to liberate Chile. This effectively ends the Argentine Front as a defensive war and turns it into an offensive continental campaign.
IV. Internal Chaos and Final Victory (1820–1824)
1820: Battle of Cepeda – The central government in Buenos Aires collapses due to civil war between Federalists and Unitarians.
1824: Battle of Ayacucho – Though fought in Peru, Argentine regiments play a crucial role. This battle represents the final security for Argentina, as the last Spanish threat in the Americas is destroyed.
The Rio de la Plata or Argentine Front (1810–1824) is unique because, after the initial revolution, the territory of modern-day Argentina was never successfully reconquered by Spain. Instead, Argentina became the "Revolutionary Headquarters" that exported independence to Chile, Peru, and Bolivia.
I. The Birth of the Revolution (1810)
May 25, 1810: The May Revolution – The Primera Junta deposes Viceroy Liniers. This begins the transition from a "Mask of Ferdinand" (loyalty to the King) to total independence.
August 1810: Execution of Liniers – The revolutionaries execute the former hero of the British Invasions for leading a counter-revolution in Córdoba.
II. The War of Three Fronts (1811–1815)
Buenos Aires fought a defensive-offensive war in three different directions simultaneously:
The Paraguayan Front (1811): Belgrano is defeated by Paraguayan militias at Tacuarí, leading to Paraguay's independent path.
The Banda Oriental (Uruguay) Front: Forces from Buenos Aires and local leader Artigas besiege the Royalist stronghold of Montevideo, which finally falls in 1814.
The Upper Peru (Bolivian) Front: The Army of the North wins at Tucumán (1812) and Salta (1813) but is crushed in the high mountains of Upper Peru, leading to a permanent stalemate in the Andes.
III. The Strategic Shift (1816–1817)
July 9, 1816: Declaration of Independence – The Congress of Tucumán officially declares the independence of the United Provinces of South America.
January 1817: The Crossing of the Andes – Realizing the northern route through Bolivia is blocked, José de San Martín leads his army across the mountains to liberate Chile. This effectively ends the Argentine Front as a defensive war and turns it into an offensive continental campaign.
IV. Internal Chaos and Final Victory (1820–1824)
1820: Battle of Cepeda – The central government in Buenos Aires collapses due to civil war between Federalists and Unitarians.
1824: Battle of Ayacucho – Though fought in Peru, Argentine regiments play a crucial role. This battle represents the final security for Argentina, as the last Spanish threat in the Americas is destroyed.
The Oriental Band Front (Today Uruguay, Rio Grande do Sud and Santa Catarina)
The Oriental Band Front (1811–1828), which roughly comprises present-day Uruguay, was perhaps the most complex theater of the era. It was a "three-way" conflict where local patriots fought not just against Spain, but also against the centralism of Buenos Aires and the expansionism of the Portuguese-Brazilian Empire.
Timeline of the Oriental Front
The Uprising (1811): Following the revolution in Buenos Aires, the interior of the Banda Oriental rose against the Royalist stronghold of Montevideo. Local leader José Gervasio Artigas defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Las Piedras, beginning the first siege of Montevideo.
The Great Exodus (1811): When Buenos Aires signed a controversial armistice with the Spanish, Artigas felt betrayed. He led nearly 16,000 people—most of the rural population—in a massive retreat known as the Exodo del Pueblo Oriental to the province of Entre Ríos.
The Federal League (1814–1815): Artigas returned and successfully captured Montevideo from the centralists of Buenos Aires. He formed the Federal League, a confederation of provinces that advocated for local autonomy and egalitarian land reform, which the elites in both Buenos Aires and Brazil viewed as a "republican threat".
The Portuguese Conquest (1816–1820): Taking advantage of the civil wars between Artigas and Buenos Aires, the Portuguese Kingdom of Brazil invaded with over 10,000 troops. Despite a fierce guerrilla resistance, Artigas was defeated at the Battle of Tacuarembó (1820) and forced into permanent exile in Paraguay.
The Cisplatine Province (1821–1825): The region was annexed by Brazil as the Cisplatina Province. Discontent simmered until 1825, when a group known as the Thirty-Three Orientals, led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja, crossed from Buenos Aires to spark a new revolution.
The Cisplatine War (1825–1828): This led to a full-scale war between the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and the Empire of Brazil. While the Argentines won key land battles like Ituzaingó, the Brazilian Navy crippled Buenos Aires with a blockade.
Final Independence (1828): Realizing neither side could win decisively, British mediation led to the Preliminary Peace Convention. Both Argentina and Brazil renounced their claims, and the Oriental Republic of Uruguay was born as a buffer state.
This front highlights why Artigas is called the "Father of the Oriental People" but also why he died in exile—he was a leader of the rural people who was eventually squeezed out by the more powerful urban interests of his neighbors
The Oriental Band Front (1811–1828), which roughly comprises present-day Uruguay, was perhaps the most complex theater of the era. It was a "three-way" conflict where local patriots fought not just against Spain, but also against the centralism of Buenos Aires and the expansionism of the Portuguese-Brazilian Empire.
Timeline of the Oriental Front
The Uprising (1811): Following the revolution in Buenos Aires, the interior of the Banda Oriental rose against the Royalist stronghold of Montevideo. Local leader José Gervasio Artigas defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Las Piedras, beginning the first siege of Montevideo.
The Great Exodus (1811): When Buenos Aires signed a controversial armistice with the Spanish, Artigas felt betrayed. He led nearly 16,000 people—most of the rural population—in a massive retreat known as the Exodo del Pueblo Oriental to the province of Entre Ríos.
The Federal League (1814–1815): Artigas returned and successfully captured Montevideo from the centralists of Buenos Aires. He formed the Federal League, a confederation of provinces that advocated for local autonomy and egalitarian land reform, which the elites in both Buenos Aires and Brazil viewed as a "republican threat".
The Portuguese Conquest (1816–1820): Taking advantage of the civil wars between Artigas and Buenos Aires, the Portuguese Kingdom of Brazil invaded with over 10,000 troops. Despite a fierce guerrilla resistance, Artigas was defeated at the Battle of Tacuarembó (1820) and forced into permanent exile in Paraguay.
The Cisplatine Province (1821–1825): The region was annexed by Brazil as the Cisplatina Province. Discontent simmered until 1825, when a group known as the Thirty-Three Orientals, led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja, crossed from Buenos Aires to spark a new revolution.
The Cisplatine War (1825–1828): This led to a full-scale war between the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and the Empire of Brazil. While the Argentines won key land battles like Ituzaingó, the Brazilian Navy crippled Buenos Aires with a blockade.
Final Independence (1828): Realizing neither side could win decisively, British mediation led to the Preliminary Peace Convention. Both Argentina and Brazil renounced their claims, and the Oriental Republic of Uruguay was born as a buffer state.
This front highlights why Artigas is called the "Father of the Oriental People" but also why he died in exile—he was a leader of the rural people who was eventually squeezed out by the more powerful urban interests of his neighbors
The Paraguayan Front:
The Paraguayan Front (1810–1811) was a unique and short-lived theater of the wars of independence. Unlike other regions that fought for years, Paraguay achieved its independence in just a few months by defeating an invading "liberating" army from Buenos Aires and then promptly overthrowing its own Spanish governor.
1. The Conflict with Buenos Aires (The Belgrano Expedition)
After the May Revolution of 1810, the new government in Buenos Aires (the Primera Junta) sent Manuel Belgrano with a small army to force the Intendency of Paraguay to recognize its authority.
Initial Success: Belgrano's forces achieved a minor victory at the Battle of Campichuelo in December 1810.
The Rejection: The Paraguayan elite and local militias did not want to be ruled by Buenos Aires. They viewed the Porteños (people from Buenos Aires) as new oppressors.
Decisive Defeats: Belgrano was soundly defeated in two major battles in early 1811: the Battle of Paraguarí (January 19) and the Battle of Tacuarí (March 9).
2. The Birth of Independent Paraguay (May 1811)
Ironically, the military victory over Buenos Aires gave the local Paraguayan officers the confidence to break away from Spain as well.
The "Double Independence": Paraguayans realized that if they could defeat Belgrano, they didn't need the protection of the Spanish governor, Bernardo de Velasco.
The Revolution of May 14–15: When Governor Velasco tried to negotiate for Portuguese military protection from Brazil, local captains like Pedro Juan Caballero and Fulgencio Yegros led a bloodless revolt.
Velasco was forced to share power and eventually deposed. By May 15, 1811, Paraguay was effectively independent from both Spain and Buenos Aires—the first nation in South America to achieve a lasting, autonomous republic.
3. Key Differences from Other Fronts
Isolationism: Under the later leadership of Dr. José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Paraguay withdrew into a policy of strict isolationism to avoid the chaotic civil wars that were tearing apart the ABC countries.
Minimal Bloodshed: Unlike the brutal "Upper Peru Front," the Paraguayan front was settled quickly with relatively low casualties.
Fraternization: During the campaign, Belgrano and the Paraguayan officers (like Cabañas) famously fraternized and exchanged gifts, leading to a mutual realization that they both wanted an end to Spanish dominance, even if they didn't want to be part of the same country.
Today, Paraguay celebrates its independence over two days, May 14 and 15, honoring the uniquely swift and decisive nature of this front.
The Paraguayan Front (1810–1811) was a unique and short-lived theater of the wars of independence. Unlike other regions that fought for years, Paraguay achieved its independence in just a few months by defeating an invading "liberating" army from Buenos Aires and then promptly overthrowing its own Spanish governor.
1. The Conflict with Buenos Aires (The Belgrano Expedition)
After the May Revolution of 1810, the new government in Buenos Aires (the Primera Junta) sent Manuel Belgrano with a small army to force the Intendency of Paraguay to recognize its authority.
Initial Success: Belgrano's forces achieved a minor victory at the Battle of Campichuelo in December 1810.
The Rejection: The Paraguayan elite and local militias did not want to be ruled by Buenos Aires. They viewed the Porteños (people from Buenos Aires) as new oppressors.
Decisive Defeats: Belgrano was soundly defeated in two major battles in early 1811: the Battle of Paraguarí (January 19) and the Battle of Tacuarí (March 9).
2. The Birth of Independent Paraguay (May 1811)
Ironically, the military victory over Buenos Aires gave the local Paraguayan officers the confidence to break away from Spain as well.
The "Double Independence": Paraguayans realized that if they could defeat Belgrano, they didn't need the protection of the Spanish governor, Bernardo de Velasco.
The Revolution of May 14–15: When Governor Velasco tried to negotiate for Portuguese military protection from Brazil, local captains like Pedro Juan Caballero and Fulgencio Yegros led a bloodless revolt.
Velasco was forced to share power and eventually deposed. By May 15, 1811, Paraguay was effectively independent from both Spain and Buenos Aires—the first nation in South America to achieve a lasting, autonomous republic.
3. Key Differences from Other Fronts
Isolationism: Under the later leadership of Dr. José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Paraguay withdrew into a policy of strict isolationism to avoid the chaotic civil wars that were tearing apart the ABC countries.
Minimal Bloodshed: Unlike the brutal "Upper Peru Front," the Paraguayan front was settled quickly with relatively low casualties.
Fraternization: During the campaign, Belgrano and the Paraguayan officers (like Cabañas) famously fraternized and exchanged gifts, leading to a mutual realization that they both wanted an end to Spanish dominance, even if they didn't want to be part of the same country.
Today, Paraguay celebrates its independence over two days, May 14 and 15, honoring the uniquely swift and decisive nature of this front.
Lieutenant General José Manuel de Goyeneche (1776–1846) was the most formidable Royalist commander in the early stages of the South American wars of independence. As a Peruvian-born aristocrat (a Creole), his role exemplifies the "civil war" nature of the conflict, where local American elites often led the defense of the Spanish Crown. His actions in the Upper Peru Front between 1809 and 1813 were decisive in preventing the early collapse of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
The Upper Peru Front (Today Bolivia)
The Upper Peru Front (1810–1825) was the most grueling and bloody theater of the wars of independence. Unlike the Chilean front, which was decided by a few large battles, the Upper Peru front was a 15-year war of attrition in the high Andes.
1. The Strategic Prize: Potosí
The main objective of this front was the City of Potosí, which held the legendary silver mines. Whoever controlled Upper Peru controlled the wealth of the continent. Buenos Aires (the "Patriots") wanted the silver; Lima (the "Royalists") wanted to keep it.
2. The Four Expeditions from Buenos Aires
The United Provinces of the River Plate sent four major military campaigns to liberate Upper Peru, all of which ultimately failed to hold the territory:
First Expedition (1810–1811): Led by Castelli. It started with a victory at Suipacha but ended in a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Huaqui.
Second Expedition (1812–1813): Led by Manuel Belgrano. He won the heroic battles of Tucumán and Salta (inside modern Argentina) but was crushed when he entered the mountains at Viluapugio and Ayohuma.
Third Expedition (1815): Led by José Rondeau. It ended in the total defeat at the Battle of Sipe-Sipe, which effectively ended Buenos Aires' hopes of a direct conquest.
Fourth Expedition (1817): A smaller, "raiding" expedition led by Aráoz de Lamadrid that also failed.
3. The "Republiquetas" (Guerrilla Warfare)
Because the regular armies from Buenos Aires kept losing, the resistance in Upper Peru was maintained by local guerrilla groups called Republiquetas. These were led by local caudillos (like Juana Azurduy and Padilla) who controlled the valleys and "mixogenic" indigenous populations, harassing the Royalist supply lines for over a decade.
4. The Final Liberation (1825)
Upper Peru was not liberated from the South (Argentina) but from the North. After the victory at Ayacucho in Peru, Antonio José de Sucre (Bolívar's top general) entered Upper Peru.
The last Royalist general, Pedro Antonio Olañeta (a staunch Absolutist who refused to surrender), was killed by his own men at the Battle of Tumusla.
On August 6, 1825, the region declared independence and named itself Bolivia in honor of Bolívar.
The Upper Peru Front (1810–1825) was the most grueling and bloody theater of the wars of independence. Unlike the Chilean front, which was decided by a few large battles, the Upper Peru front was a 15-year war of attrition in the high Andes.
1. The Strategic Prize: Potosí
The main objective of this front was the City of Potosí, which held the legendary silver mines. Whoever controlled Upper Peru controlled the wealth of the continent. Buenos Aires (the "Patriots") wanted the silver; Lima (the "Royalists") wanted to keep it.
2. The Four Expeditions from Buenos Aires
The United Provinces of the River Plate sent four major military campaigns to liberate Upper Peru, all of which ultimately failed to hold the territory:
First Expedition (1810–1811): Led by Castelli. It started with a victory at Suipacha but ended in a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Huaqui.
Second Expedition (1812–1813): Led by Manuel Belgrano. He won the heroic battles of Tucumán and Salta (inside modern Argentina) but was crushed when he entered the mountains at Viluapugio and Ayohuma.
Third Expedition (1815): Led by José Rondeau. It ended in the total defeat at the Battle of Sipe-Sipe, which effectively ended Buenos Aires' hopes of a direct conquest.
Fourth Expedition (1817): A smaller, "raiding" expedition led by Aráoz de Lamadrid that also failed.
3. The "Republiquetas" (Guerrilla Warfare)
Because the regular armies from Buenos Aires kept losing, the resistance in Upper Peru was maintained by local guerrilla groups called Republiquetas. These were led by local caudillos (like Juana Azurduy and Padilla) who controlled the valleys and "mixogenic" indigenous populations, harassing the Royalist supply lines for over a decade.
4. The Final Liberation (1825)
Upper Peru was not liberated from the South (Argentina) but from the North. After the victory at Ayacucho in Peru, Antonio José de Sucre (Bolívar's top general) entered Upper Peru.
The last Royalist general, Pedro Antonio Olañeta (a staunch Absolutist who refused to surrender), was killed by his own men at the Battle of Tumusla.
On August 6, 1825, the region declared independence and named itself Bolivia in honor of Bolívar.
The 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment
The story of Baldomero Espartero (1793–1879) during his time in South America is one of the most remarkable chapters of his life. Before he became a regent of Spain, a prince, and a prime minister, he was a young, ambitious officer fighting in the freezing mountains of Alto Perú (Bolivia) with the 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment. His decade-long experience in the Andes entirely shaped the military ruthlessness and political connections that later defined his rise to absolute power in Europe.
Espartero arrived in Peru in September 1815 as a 22-year-old sub-lieutenant. Because of his sharp mind and Napoleonic war experience, he quickly caught the attention of General José de la Serna.
In the camps of Alto Perú, Espartero became a core member of a tight-knit brotherhood of young Spanish officers. This group included future generals like Gerónimo Valdés, José Canterac, and Maroto. Years later in Spain, this powerful military faction would be famously known as "Los Ayacuchos." They dominated 19th-century Spanish politics, using the fierce loyalty they forged while surviving the brutal Bolivian campaigns together.
Combat Record in Bolivia and Argentina
Espartero was not a desk officer; he was a frontline combatant who gained a reputation for extreme bravery and tactical competence. As part of the Extremadura Battalion, Espartero rode into the jaws of the Guerra Gaucha in northern Argentina. He faced the hit-and-run terror of Güemes' cavalry firsthand, learning how to manage troops under psychological warfare and starvation.
The "Tiger of Charcas": He participated in dozens of minor, brutal skirmishes across the Bolivian Altiplano against the Republiquetas. He was wounded several times. His efficiency in these anti-guerrilla operations led to rapid promotions; he rose from a low-ranking officer to a Colonel in record time.
Espartero was frequently tasked with moving ammunition, silver bullion, and troops through dangerous Andean passes (such as Potosí, Oruro, and La Paz), making him an expert in wartime logistics under extreme geographic constraints.
By 1824, the Spanish Empire in South America was on its deathbed. In late 1824, the Viceroy sent Espartero on a desperate diplomatic mission to Spain to request urgent reinforcements from King Ferdinand VII.This assignment saved his life and his career.
While Espartero was at sea sailing toward Europe, the Viceroy's main army was completely destroyed by General Sucre at the definitive Battle of Ayacucho (December 1824).
His own Extremadura Battalion remnants were wiped out or surrendered shortly after at Tumusla (April 1825).Although Espartero did not fight in the disaster of Ayacucho, he was still labeled an "Ayacucho" back in Spain. He returned home as a battle-hardened Colonel with his reputation intact, while his peers returned as humiliated prisoners of war.
From the Bolivian Altiplano to the Throne of Spain: The exact tactics Espartero learned while fighting the gauchos and Bolivian rebels were later applied in Spain during the First Carlist War (1833–1840). Facing Carlist rebels who used the exact same hit-and-run guerrilla tactics he had witnessed in South America, Espartero knew exactly how to respond. He used scorched-earth tactics, high mobility, and relentless pressure to crush the rebellion. He became a national hero, was given the title of Prince of Vergara, and eventually ruled Spain as Regent from 1840 to 1843.
Espartero arrived in Peru in September 1815 as a 22-year-old sub-lieutenant. Because of his sharp mind and Napoleonic war experience, he quickly caught the attention of General José de la Serna.
In the camps of Alto Perú, Espartero became a core member of a tight-knit brotherhood of young Spanish officers. This group included future generals like Gerónimo Valdés, José Canterac, and Maroto. Years later in Spain, this powerful military faction would be famously known as "Los Ayacuchos." They dominated 19th-century Spanish politics, using the fierce loyalty they forged while surviving the brutal Bolivian campaigns together.
Combat Record in Bolivia and Argentina
Espartero was not a desk officer; he was a frontline combatant who gained a reputation for extreme bravery and tactical competence. As part of the Extremadura Battalion, Espartero rode into the jaws of the Guerra Gaucha in northern Argentina. He faced the hit-and-run terror of Güemes' cavalry firsthand, learning how to manage troops under psychological warfare and starvation.
The "Tiger of Charcas": He participated in dozens of minor, brutal skirmishes across the Bolivian Altiplano against the Republiquetas. He was wounded several times. His efficiency in these anti-guerrilla operations led to rapid promotions; he rose from a low-ranking officer to a Colonel in record time.
Espartero was frequently tasked with moving ammunition, silver bullion, and troops through dangerous Andean passes (such as Potosí, Oruro, and La Paz), making him an expert in wartime logistics under extreme geographic constraints.
By 1824, the Spanish Empire in South America was on its deathbed. In late 1824, the Viceroy sent Espartero on a desperate diplomatic mission to Spain to request urgent reinforcements from King Ferdinand VII.This assignment saved his life and his career.
While Espartero was at sea sailing toward Europe, the Viceroy's main army was completely destroyed by General Sucre at the definitive Battle of Ayacucho (December 1824).
His own Extremadura Battalion remnants were wiped out or surrendered shortly after at Tumusla (April 1825).Although Espartero did not fight in the disaster of Ayacucho, he was still labeled an "Ayacucho" back in Spain. He returned home as a battle-hardened Colonel with his reputation intact, while his peers returned as humiliated prisoners of war.
From the Bolivian Altiplano to the Throne of Spain: The exact tactics Espartero learned while fighting the gauchos and Bolivian rebels were later applied in Spain during the First Carlist War (1833–1840). Facing Carlist rebels who used the exact same hit-and-run guerrilla tactics he had witnessed in South America, Espartero knew exactly how to respond. He used scorched-earth tactics, high mobility, and relentless pressure to crush the rebellion. He became a national hero, was given the title of Prince of Vergara, and eventually ruled Spain as Regent from 1840 to 1843.
The 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Infantry Line Regiment was a veteran unit hardened in the Napoleonic Wars (known in Spain as the Guerra de la Independencia). Its deployment to Alto Perú (modern-day Bolivia) was part of Spain’s major military effort to regain control of its South American colonies after the defeat of Napoleon.
Before crossing the Atlantic, the men and officers of the Extremadura Regiment spent six brutal years fighting against the French Imperial armies. The regiment fought across the Iberian Peninsula, particularly in its namesake region of Extremadura, which saw heavy action. They participated in critical actions, sieges, and skirmishes alongside British allied forces under Arthur Wellesley (the future Duke of Wellington).
This long conflict turned the survivors into highly disciplined, combat-hardened veterans. They were deeply familiar with modern European infantry tactics, guerrilla warfare, and the harsh realities of long-distance supply lines.
The Expedition to the Pacific (1815): When King Ferdinand VII was restored to the Spanish throne, he ordered the reorganization of the military to crush the independence movements in the Americas - The deep paradox of how Britain's geopolitical strategy shifted from saving the Spanish Empire to inadvertently helping dismantle it highlights this transition.
The Voyage: In May 1815, the 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment boarded the frigate Carlota in Cádiz as part of a massive reinforcement wave sent to the Pacific coast. They landed at El Callao, Peru, in September 1815. Shortly after, under the command of General José de la Serna, they were ordered to march southeast into the rugged terrain of Alto Perú to lock down the silver-rich region of Charcas (Bolivia) and secure the Viceroyalty's southern frontier.
The Shift from European to Andean Warfare
When these Napoleonic veterans arrived in Bolivia, they faced a completely different type of war. The high altitude (soroche), freezing Altiplano nights, and jagged mountain passes quickly wore down the European soldiers. Instead of fighting massive Napoleonic army corps on open European plains, they were thrown into a brutal anti-guerrilla campaign against the Republiquetas (indigenous and mestizo rebel insurgencies).
The Dilution of the Unit: Because of high casualties from disease and fighting, the original "Napoleonic veterans" grew fewer each year. To survive, the battalion had to recruit heavily from local Alto Peruvian populations. By the time the war ended at the Battle of Tumusla in 1825, the unit still bore the elite Napoleonic name of Extremadura, but its ranks were almost entirely filled by native Bolivian soldiers led by a few remaining Spanish officers.
Before crossing the Atlantic, the men and officers of the Extremadura Regiment spent six brutal years fighting against the French Imperial armies. The regiment fought across the Iberian Peninsula, particularly in its namesake region of Extremadura, which saw heavy action. They participated in critical actions, sieges, and skirmishes alongside British allied forces under Arthur Wellesley (the future Duke of Wellington).
This long conflict turned the survivors into highly disciplined, combat-hardened veterans. They were deeply familiar with modern European infantry tactics, guerrilla warfare, and the harsh realities of long-distance supply lines.
The Expedition to the Pacific (1815): When King Ferdinand VII was restored to the Spanish throne, he ordered the reorganization of the military to crush the independence movements in the Americas - The deep paradox of how Britain's geopolitical strategy shifted from saving the Spanish Empire to inadvertently helping dismantle it highlights this transition.
The Voyage: In May 1815, the 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment boarded the frigate Carlota in Cádiz as part of a massive reinforcement wave sent to the Pacific coast. They landed at El Callao, Peru, in September 1815. Shortly after, under the command of General José de la Serna, they were ordered to march southeast into the rugged terrain of Alto Perú to lock down the silver-rich region of Charcas (Bolivia) and secure the Viceroyalty's southern frontier.
The Shift from European to Andean Warfare
When these Napoleonic veterans arrived in Bolivia, they faced a completely different type of war. The high altitude (soroche), freezing Altiplano nights, and jagged mountain passes quickly wore down the European soldiers. Instead of fighting massive Napoleonic army corps on open European plains, they were thrown into a brutal anti-guerrilla campaign against the Republiquetas (indigenous and mestizo rebel insurgencies).
The Dilution of the Unit: Because of high casualties from disease and fighting, the original "Napoleonic veterans" grew fewer each year. To survive, the battalion had to recruit heavily from local Alto Peruvian populations. By the time the war ended at the Battle of Tumusla in 1825, the unit still bore the elite Napoleonic name of Extremadura, but its ranks were almost entirely filled by native Bolivian soldiers led by a few remaining Spanish officers.
The 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment played a prominent and brutal role in the Guerra Gaucha (Gaucho War), the fierce guerrilla conflict fought along the mountainous border between Alto Perú (Bolivia) and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (Argentina).Led by the legendary guerrilla commander General Martín Miguel de Güemes, the Argentine gauchos turned the region of Salta and Jujuy into a living hell for Spanish Napoleonic veterans.
When the Extremadura Battalion marched south from Bolivia into northern Argentina, they encountered a type of warfare for which European manuals had no answer. As Napoleonic veterans, the Extremadura soldiers excelled at classic European warfare—linear infantry formations, disciplined volley fire, and coordinated bayonet charges. Güemes’ forces refused to fight in the open. Operating as highly mobile light cavalry, the gauchos used hit-and-run tactics, ambushed supply lines, poisoned water wells, and launched terrifying night raids.
The 1817 Invasion (The Peak of the Conflict)
The battalion’s major test came during the massive 1817 invasion of Salta, commanded by the Spanish General José de la Serna (the very man who brought the Extremadura unit to South America). De la Serna intended to march all the way to Buenos Aires to crush the Argentine revolution. The Extremadura Battalion was used as a vanguard strike force due to its veteran status.
While the Spanish successfully occupied the cities of Jujuy and Salta, Güemes completely isolated them. The gauchos cut off all food supplies and harassed any Spanish detachment that left the city limits.
The Retreat: Starving, exhausted, and bleeding from constant skirmishes, De la Serna was forced to order a full retreat back up into the safety of the Bolivian mountains. The Extremadura Battalion suffered heavy casualties during this grueling withdrawal.
The ultimate historical irony for the Extremadura Battalion during the Guerra Gaucha lies in their own past. Just a few years prior in Spain, these exact same soldiers had fought as guerrilleros (or alongside them) to expel Napoleon’s invading French army from their homeland. In the mountains of Salta and Jujuy, the roles were completely flipped. The Extremadura veterans were now the heavily geared, conventional imperial army occupying a foreign land, while Güemes and his gauchos were the local patriots using the geography to defend their homes. Ultimately, Güemes' relentless defense broke the spirit of the Spanish expeditionary forces. The Extremadura Battalion was forced back into Alto Perú (Bolivia), where they spent their remaining years drained of their original European manpower and tied down in defensive garrison duties until their final defeat in 1825.
When the Extremadura Battalion marched south from Bolivia into northern Argentina, they encountered a type of warfare for which European manuals had no answer. As Napoleonic veterans, the Extremadura soldiers excelled at classic European warfare—linear infantry formations, disciplined volley fire, and coordinated bayonet charges. Güemes’ forces refused to fight in the open. Operating as highly mobile light cavalry, the gauchos used hit-and-run tactics, ambushed supply lines, poisoned water wells, and launched terrifying night raids.
The 1817 Invasion (The Peak of the Conflict)
The battalion’s major test came during the massive 1817 invasion of Salta, commanded by the Spanish General José de la Serna (the very man who brought the Extremadura unit to South America). De la Serna intended to march all the way to Buenos Aires to crush the Argentine revolution. The Extremadura Battalion was used as a vanguard strike force due to its veteran status.
While the Spanish successfully occupied the cities of Jujuy and Salta, Güemes completely isolated them. The gauchos cut off all food supplies and harassed any Spanish detachment that left the city limits.
The Retreat: Starving, exhausted, and bleeding from constant skirmishes, De la Serna was forced to order a full retreat back up into the safety of the Bolivian mountains. The Extremadura Battalion suffered heavy casualties during this grueling withdrawal.
The ultimate historical irony for the Extremadura Battalion during the Guerra Gaucha lies in their own past. Just a few years prior in Spain, these exact same soldiers had fought as guerrilleros (or alongside them) to expel Napoleon’s invading French army from their homeland. In the mountains of Salta and Jujuy, the roles were completely flipped. The Extremadura veterans were now the heavily geared, conventional imperial army occupying a foreign land, while Güemes and his gauchos were the local patriots using the geography to defend their homes. Ultimately, Güemes' relentless defense broke the spirit of the Spanish expeditionary forces. The Extremadura Battalion was forced back into Alto Perú (Bolivia), where they spent their remaining years drained of their original European manpower and tied down in defensive garrison duties until their final defeat in 1825.
Uniforms. The Official Regulation Uniform (1815 Arrival)
Jacket (Chaqueta). When the battalion arrived in South America fresh from the Napoleonic Wars, they wore the standard Spanish uniform designated for Line Infantry (1815 Regulation). The Coat (Casaca), made of dark azul turquí (indigo blue) wool cloth.
The Facings (Divisas): Bold scarlet red (encarnado) on the collar, the lapels, and the cuffs.
Piping (Vivos): Thin white piping tracing the edges of the coat and lapels.
Buttons: Metallic brass or gold-tinted buttons.Trousers: White linen for summer, or dark blue wool matching the coat for winter.
White Vest (Chupa).
Made of fine white wool cloth (paño blanco) for the winter and white linen or cotton canvas for the summer. The vest was cut relatively short, stopping just at the waistline, ensuring that the white of the vest created a sharp contrast against the dark blue (azul turquí) coat and the bright scarlet (encarnado) lapels.
Under the regulations of the Spanish Crown, the white vest (chupa or chaleco) was a core element of the official uniform that the 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment brought from Europe in 1815. However, just like their trousers and coats, this specific garment underwent a massive transformation during the campaigns in the Alto Perú (Bolivia) and the borders of Argentina.
Trousers
Summer trousers made of white linen or lightweight canvas. They looked incredibly clean and striking but were entirely useless against the freezing mountain winds of the Altiplano.
Winter: Long trousers made of dark blue (azul turquí) wool that matched their main jackets.
Gaiters:
They wore high black canvas or leather gaiters (polainas) that buttoned over the knee or calf to protect their trousers from mud and debris.
Headgear:
The shako Morrion (bell-topped or cylindrical) featuring a red Spanish cockade (escarapela) and a brass plate. It was a rigid, cylindrical cap tapered slightly toward the top (or flared into a bell-top shape in later 1815 designs) made of black wool felt over a stiffened leather or cardboard frame. It featured a black leather visor (peak) and a leather crown.
The Oil Canvas shako Morrion Cover (Funda de Hule): This is highly accurate for campaign reality. The pristine black felt and delicate cords would instantly ruin in the Altiplano dust, mud, and rain. Soldiers almost always covered the entire shako with an oil-blackened canvas cover. This protected the structure and gave it a glossy, practical, weather-resistant finish in the field.
Cords (Banderolas o Cordones): As specified, these were white cords made of worsted wool for regular infantrymen. They were attached near the top, draped elegantly across the front or side of the shako, and terminated in two hanging tassels on the side.
Red Cockade (Escarapela Roja): This was the absolute national symbol of Spain. It was a circular, pleated ribbon or leather disk in solid scarlet red positioned at the front-top center of the shako, secured by a brass loop or button.
Pompon: The pompon was a small, compact, spherical or tufted ball made of worsted wool. Placed directly above or behind the red cockade. For the standard Fusilier (Line) companies, the wool pompon was traditionally a sphere. However, because the Extremadura battalion operated as a hard-hitting vanguard strike unit in Bolivia, many companies adopted the elite solid red pompon (typical of the Granaderos).
The gorro de manga (literally translated as "sleeve cap" or commonly known in English as a sleeve forage cap) was the ultimate fatigue, camp, and unofficial marching gear for the 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment in Alto Perú (Bolivia).
Webbing:
White leather webbing and black boxes ammunition pouches.
Grenadier or Cazador elite companies within the battalion.
The choice between the overcoat and the civilian poncho is one of the most vivid examples of how the 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment adapted to the Altiplano.
Jacket (Chaqueta). When the battalion arrived in South America fresh from the Napoleonic Wars, they wore the standard Spanish uniform designated for Line Infantry (1815 Regulation). The Coat (Casaca), made of dark azul turquí (indigo blue) wool cloth.
The Facings (Divisas): Bold scarlet red (encarnado) on the collar, the lapels, and the cuffs.
Piping (Vivos): Thin white piping tracing the edges of the coat and lapels.
Buttons: Metallic brass or gold-tinted buttons.Trousers: White linen for summer, or dark blue wool matching the coat for winter.
White Vest (Chupa).
Made of fine white wool cloth (paño blanco) for the winter and white linen or cotton canvas for the summer. The vest was cut relatively short, stopping just at the waistline, ensuring that the white of the vest created a sharp contrast against the dark blue (azul turquí) coat and the bright scarlet (encarnado) lapels.
Under the regulations of the Spanish Crown, the white vest (chupa or chaleco) was a core element of the official uniform that the 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment brought from Europe in 1815. However, just like their trousers and coats, this specific garment underwent a massive transformation during the campaigns in the Alto Perú (Bolivia) and the borders of Argentina.
Trousers
Summer trousers made of white linen or lightweight canvas. They looked incredibly clean and striking but were entirely useless against the freezing mountain winds of the Altiplano.
Winter: Long trousers made of dark blue (azul turquí) wool that matched their main jackets.
Gaiters:
They wore high black canvas or leather gaiters (polainas) that buttoned over the knee or calf to protect their trousers from mud and debris.
Headgear:
The shako Morrion (bell-topped or cylindrical) featuring a red Spanish cockade (escarapela) and a brass plate. It was a rigid, cylindrical cap tapered slightly toward the top (or flared into a bell-top shape in later 1815 designs) made of black wool felt over a stiffened leather or cardboard frame. It featured a black leather visor (peak) and a leather crown.
The Oil Canvas shako Morrion Cover (Funda de Hule): This is highly accurate for campaign reality. The pristine black felt and delicate cords would instantly ruin in the Altiplano dust, mud, and rain. Soldiers almost always covered the entire shako with an oil-blackened canvas cover. This protected the structure and gave it a glossy, practical, weather-resistant finish in the field.
Cords (Banderolas o Cordones): As specified, these were white cords made of worsted wool for regular infantrymen. They were attached near the top, draped elegantly across the front or side of the shako, and terminated in two hanging tassels on the side.
Red Cockade (Escarapela Roja): This was the absolute national symbol of Spain. It was a circular, pleated ribbon or leather disk in solid scarlet red positioned at the front-top center of the shako, secured by a brass loop or button.
Pompon: The pompon was a small, compact, spherical or tufted ball made of worsted wool. Placed directly above or behind the red cockade. For the standard Fusilier (Line) companies, the wool pompon was traditionally a sphere. However, because the Extremadura battalion operated as a hard-hitting vanguard strike unit in Bolivia, many companies adopted the elite solid red pompon (typical of the Granaderos).
The gorro de manga (literally translated as "sleeve cap" or commonly known in English as a sleeve forage cap) was the ultimate fatigue, camp, and unofficial marching gear for the 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment in Alto Perú (Bolivia).
Webbing:
White leather webbing and black boxes ammunition pouches.
Grenadier or Cazador elite companies within the battalion.
The choice between the overcoat and the civilian poncho is one of the most vivid examples of how the 1st Battalion of the Extremadura Regiment adapted to the Altiplano.
General Manuel Osorio. Royal Governor of Chile.With Osorio's victory at Rancagua, the period known as "reconquest" (Reconquista) of Chile had begun.
The Chilean Front
The Chilean War of Independence is traditionally divided into three distinct stages:
Patria Vieja (1810–1814): The Early Republic
Sept 18, 1810: The First Government Junta is formed in Santiago, initially declaring loyalty to King Ferdinand VII but seeking autonomy.
1812: Formal military conflict begins as Royalist forces from Peru arrive to suppress the junta.
Oct 1–2, 1814: Battle of Rancagua – A decisive Royalist victory that crushed the patriot forces and ended the Patria Vieja.
The Battle of Rancagua, also known in Chile as the Disaster of Rancagua, occurred on October 1, 1814, to October 2, 1814, when the Spanish Army under the command of Mariano Osorio defeated the Chilean forces led by Bernardo O’Higgins. This put an end to the Chilean Patria Vieja and it was the decisive step of the Spanish military Reconquest of Chile.
Reconquista (1814–1817): The Spanish Restoration
Spain regains total control of Chile.
Patriot leaders, including Bernardo O'Higgins, flee across the Andes to Mendoza, Argentina, to join forces with José de San Martín.
Jan 1817: The Army of the Andes begins its legendary crossing into Chile.
Patria Nueva (1817–1823): The Final Liberation
Feb 12, 1817: Battle of Chacabuco – San Martín and O'Higgins defeat the Royalists, reoccupying Santiago.
Feb 12, 1818: Chile officially proclaims its Independence.
April 5, 1818: Battle of Maipú – The final, massive Royalist threat on mainland Chile is destroyed.
1820–1826: The Final Resisters – While the main war moved to Peru, fighting continued in southern bastions. The last Spanish forces surrendered at Chiloé Archipelago in 1826.
The Battle of Maipú (Chile, 1818)
The Battle of Maipú was the final, decisive victory for San Martín and Bernardo O'Higgins against the Royalists in Chile.
It effectively secured the independence of Chile and ensured that the Royalists could never again launch a major land invasion of Argentina from the West.
Because San Martín won at Maipú, he was able to prepare his naval expedition to Peru. This forced the Spanish Crown to realize they needed a massive new army to defend the South—which led to the attempt to send the Expedition of Cádiz in 1820 that ultimately mutinied and failed.
The Spanish troops San Martín fought at Maipú were under the command of General Mariano Osorio, who was part of the Royalist Army of Peru. They were not part of Morillo’s veterans from Spain. In fact, many of the Royalist soldiers at Maipú were local Chilean and Peruvian recruits, while Morillo’s army was largely composed of European Spaniards.
The Battle of Maipú was the final, decisive victory for San Martín and Bernardo O'Higgins against the Royalists in Chile.
It effectively secured the independence of Chile and ensured that the Royalists could never again launch a major land invasion of Argentina from the West.
Because San Martín won at Maipú, he was able to prepare his naval expedition to Peru. This forced the Spanish Crown to realize they needed a massive new army to defend the South—which led to the attempt to send the Expedition of Cádiz in 1820 that ultimately mutinied and failed.
The Spanish troops San Martín fought at Maipú were under the command of General Mariano Osorio, who was part of the Royalist Army of Peru. They were not part of Morillo’s veterans from Spain. In fact, many of the Royalist soldiers at Maipú were local Chilean and Peruvian recruits, while Morillo’s army was largely composed of European Spaniards.
José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa Viceroy of Peru. He was unable to occupy the position of viceroy in Lima until 1806, because he was taken prisoner by the British during his voyage from Spain.
When revolution broke out in Buenos Aires on May 25, 1810, Abascal reoccupied the provinces of Córdoba, Potosí, La Paz and Charcas (in Upper Peru, now Bolivia) and reincorporated them into the Viceroyalty of Peru.
When revolution broke out in Buenos Aires on May 25, 1810, Abascal reoccupied the provinces of Córdoba, Potosí, La Paz and Charcas (in Upper Peru, now Bolivia) and reincorporated them into the Viceroyalty of Peru.
The Peruvian Front
This front was the final and most resilient stronghold of the Spanish Empire in South America. The timeline is defined by a decade of internal uprisings followed by two massive external liberation campaigns that converged to dismantle the Viceroyalty.
I. The Era of Internal Rebellions (1811–1815)
While the rest of the continent was already in full revolt, Peru remained a Royalist pillar, though not without internal challenges.
1811: Battle of Huaqui – The Royalist Army of Peru decisively defeated an Argentine invasion from Buenos Aires, securing Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) for the Crown.
1811–1813: Tacna Rebellions – Early, short-lived uprisings by local patriots that were quickly suppressed by the Viceroy.
1812: Huánuco Revolt – A significant indigenous and mestizo uprising against colonial authorities.
1814–1815: Cuzco Rebellion – Led by Mateo Pumacahua (a former Royalist indigenous leader) and the Angulo brothers. It was the most serious internal threat but was crushed at the Battle of Umachiri.
II. San Martín and the Southern Campaign (1820–1822)
After liberating Chile, José de San Martín launched a seaborne invasion to strike at the heart of Spanish power.
Sept 1820: San Martín’s Liberating Expedition landed at Paracas.
Nov 1820: Battle of Cerro de Pasco – Patriot forces under Arenales won a key victory in the central highlands.
Jan 1821: Aznapuquio Coup – Royalist officers deposed Viceroy Pezuela and replaced him with José de la Serna due to Pezuela's perceived military failure.
July 28, 1821: Declaration of Independence – After Royalists abandoned the capital to fortify the highlands, San Martín entered Lima and proclaimed Peru free.
July 1822: Guayaquil Conference – San Martín met with Simón Bolívar. Unable to agree on the future government (Monarchy vs. Republic) and realizing Bolívar wouldn't share command, San Martín withdrew from Peru.
III. Bolívar and the Final Consolidation (1823–1826)
With San Martín gone, the Republic almost collapsed until Bolívar arrived to take absolute command.
Sept 1823: Bolívar arrived in Lima and was eventually named Dictator of Peru to reorganize the war effort.
Aug 1824: Battle of Junín – A critical cavalry engagement in the high Andes where Bolívar’s forces defeated the Royalists.
Dec 9, 1824: Battle of Ayacucho – The "Funeral of the Empire." Antonio José de Sucre decisively defeated Viceroy La Serna, who was captured. This battle effectively ended Spanish rule in South America.
Jan 1826: Surrender of Callao – The last major Royalist holdout at the Real Felipe Fortress surrendered after a long siege, marking the final end of the Peruvian front.
This front was the final and most resilient stronghold of the Spanish Empire in South America. The timeline is defined by a decade of internal uprisings followed by two massive external liberation campaigns that converged to dismantle the Viceroyalty.
I. The Era of Internal Rebellions (1811–1815)
While the rest of the continent was already in full revolt, Peru remained a Royalist pillar, though not without internal challenges.
1811: Battle of Huaqui – The Royalist Army of Peru decisively defeated an Argentine invasion from Buenos Aires, securing Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) for the Crown.
1811–1813: Tacna Rebellions – Early, short-lived uprisings by local patriots that were quickly suppressed by the Viceroy.
1812: Huánuco Revolt – A significant indigenous and mestizo uprising against colonial authorities.
1814–1815: Cuzco Rebellion – Led by Mateo Pumacahua (a former Royalist indigenous leader) and the Angulo brothers. It was the most serious internal threat but was crushed at the Battle of Umachiri.
II. San Martín and the Southern Campaign (1820–1822)
After liberating Chile, José de San Martín launched a seaborne invasion to strike at the heart of Spanish power.
Sept 1820: San Martín’s Liberating Expedition landed at Paracas.
Nov 1820: Battle of Cerro de Pasco – Patriot forces under Arenales won a key victory in the central highlands.
Jan 1821: Aznapuquio Coup – Royalist officers deposed Viceroy Pezuela and replaced him with José de la Serna due to Pezuela's perceived military failure.
July 28, 1821: Declaration of Independence – After Royalists abandoned the capital to fortify the highlands, San Martín entered Lima and proclaimed Peru free.
July 1822: Guayaquil Conference – San Martín met with Simón Bolívar. Unable to agree on the future government (Monarchy vs. Republic) and realizing Bolívar wouldn't share command, San Martín withdrew from Peru.
III. Bolívar and the Final Consolidation (1823–1826)
With San Martín gone, the Republic almost collapsed until Bolívar arrived to take absolute command.
Sept 1823: Bolívar arrived in Lima and was eventually named Dictator of Peru to reorganize the war effort.
Aug 1824: Battle of Junín – A critical cavalry engagement in the high Andes where Bolívar’s forces defeated the Royalists.
Dec 9, 1824: Battle of Ayacucho – The "Funeral of the Empire." Antonio José de Sucre decisively defeated Viceroy La Serna, who was captured. This battle effectively ended Spanish rule in South America.
Jan 1826: Surrender of Callao – The last major Royalist holdout at the Real Felipe Fortress surrendered after a long siege, marking the final end of the Peruvian front.
Field Marshal Jose Pio Camilo de Tristan. He led a Royalist force into the territory of present-day Argentina after the Battle of Guaqui. He was defeated at Tucumán and again at Salta, by one of his classmates at Salamanca, rebel General Manuel Belgrano.
The last Viceroy of Peru: The December 1824 defeat of Viceroy José de la Serna in the Battle of Ayacucho effectively ended Spanish power in Peru. Tristán was the most senior Spanish military officer in the colony, and as such he assumed the office of provisional viceroy, solely for the purpose of transferring power to the nationalists.
The last Viceroy of Peru: The December 1824 defeat of Viceroy José de la Serna in the Battle of Ayacucho effectively ended Spanish power in Peru. Tristán was the most senior Spanish military officer in the colony, and as such he assumed the office of provisional viceroy, solely for the purpose of transferring power to the nationalists.
In 1814 Morillo was named Captain General of Venezuela and given command of an Expeditionary Army to defeat the rebellions in New Granada and Venezuela.
The Caribbean and New Spain (The Northern Theater)
First Military Expedition
After the "Spanish Ulcer" became a strategic nightmare for Napoleon, he signed the Treaty of Valençay in December 1813. Through this treaty, he officially recognized Ferdinand VII as the legitimate King of Spain and released him from captivity. Then, once Ferdinand VII retook power, he organized the first military expedition under Morillo's command to repress the independence movements. This was the Expeditionary Army of Costa Firme, led by General Pablo Morillo (El pacificador) in 1815. It was the largest military force Spain ever sent to the Americas, consisting of over 10,000 veterans of the Napoleonic Wars.
1815 The Strategy: "The Pacificador"
Ferdinand VII gave Morillo the title of "Pacifier." His mission was to crush the revolution in Venezuela and New Granada (Colombia) and then move south.
The Siege of Cartagena: Morillo famously besieged the city for 105 days, leading to a brutal famine and the eventual fall of the "Heroic City."
The "Regime of Terror": Once he took control, Morillo executed hundreds of intellectuals and "patriot" leaders. This brutality backfired—it convinced many who were on the fence that the Spanish Crown was no longer a fatherly protector, but a foreign oppressor.
In the North (Bolívar): Morillo’s expedition was devastatingly effective at first. It forced Simón Bolívar to flee to Jamaica and Haiti, where he wrote his famous "Jamaica Letter" calling for British help.
In the South (San Martín): Interestingly, Morillo’s army was diverted to the Caribbean, leaving the River Plate (Argentina) relatively unpressured by Spanish reinforcements. This gave San Martín the "breathing room" he needed to organize the Army of the Andes in Mendoza.
While the officers like Morillo were Spanish "Peninsulares," the actual fighting was often between Mestizo/Indigenous Royalists and Mestizo/Indigenous Patriots.
Morillo relied heavily on the Llaneros (rugged cowboys of the plains) who were originally loyal to the King.
However, after Morillo’s harsh treatment of locals, many of these "mixogenic" warriors switched sides to follow José Antonio Páez and join Bolívar’s cause.
The British and the 1820 Mutiny
Morillo's campaign ultimately failed because he couldn't get a second expedition of reinforcements. In 1820, another 20,000 troops were gathered in Spain to help him, but they mutinied in Cádiz (the Riego Revolt), demanding the restoration of the 1812 Constitution. This mutiny effectively ended Spain's hope of a full military reconquest.
Morillo eventually signed an armistice with Bolívar in 1820 and returned to Spain, later becoming a supporter of Isabella II against the Carlists.
1820 Expedition of Cadiz
After Pablo Morillo’s 1815 expedition, the next massive military effort was the Expeditionary Army of 1820, often referred to as the Expedition of Cádiz.
This was intended to be the "final blow" to the independence movements, but it ended up being the event that accidentally secured Latin American independence.
Ferdinand VII assembled a force of over 20,000 veterans and a massive fleet in the port of Cádiz. The objective was to sail to the River Plate (Argentina), seize Buenos Aires, and then link up with Royalist forces in Peru to crush the revolution once and for all.
The Mutiny of Rafael del Riego (1820)
As the troops were preparing to board the ships, a colonel named Rafael del Riego led a liberal military coup.
The soldiers were exhausted from the Napoleonic Wars and had no desire to die of yellow fever or battle in the Americas. Riego demanded the restoration of the 1812 Constitution that Ferdinand VII had abolished. The expedition never sailed. The mutiny forced the King to accept a liberal government (the Trienio Liberal), which shifted Spain's focus toward internal politics and away from the reconquest.
In January 1820, over 20,000 soldiers gathered in Cádiz to sail for the River Plate. Instead of embarking, they mutinied under Rafael del Riego, demanding the restoration of the 1812 Liberal Constitution. This meant: No Reinforcements: The Royalist armies in the Americas were left completely abandoned by Madrid.
Political Chaos: The mutiny sparked a "civil war" between Liberal and Absolutist Royalists in the Andes, weakening their defense against Bolívar and San Martín.
This was the "miracle" the Liberators needed:
With the threat of 20,000 Spanish troops removed from his rear in the River Plate, San Martín was free to launch his expedition to liberate Peru from Chile.
Bolívar: Morillo, deprived of these reinforcements, was forced to sign a six-month armistice with Bolívar, giving the Patriot forces time to reorganize for the final Battle of Carabobo.
First Military Expedition
After the "Spanish Ulcer" became a strategic nightmare for Napoleon, he signed the Treaty of Valençay in December 1813. Through this treaty, he officially recognized Ferdinand VII as the legitimate King of Spain and released him from captivity. Then, once Ferdinand VII retook power, he organized the first military expedition under Morillo's command to repress the independence movements. This was the Expeditionary Army of Costa Firme, led by General Pablo Morillo (El pacificador) in 1815. It was the largest military force Spain ever sent to the Americas, consisting of over 10,000 veterans of the Napoleonic Wars.
1815 The Strategy: "The Pacificador"
Ferdinand VII gave Morillo the title of "Pacifier." His mission was to crush the revolution in Venezuela and New Granada (Colombia) and then move south.
The Siege of Cartagena: Morillo famously besieged the city for 105 days, leading to a brutal famine and the eventual fall of the "Heroic City."
The "Regime of Terror": Once he took control, Morillo executed hundreds of intellectuals and "patriot" leaders. This brutality backfired—it convinced many who were on the fence that the Spanish Crown was no longer a fatherly protector, but a foreign oppressor.
In the North (Bolívar): Morillo’s expedition was devastatingly effective at first. It forced Simón Bolívar to flee to Jamaica and Haiti, where he wrote his famous "Jamaica Letter" calling for British help.
In the South (San Martín): Interestingly, Morillo’s army was diverted to the Caribbean, leaving the River Plate (Argentina) relatively unpressured by Spanish reinforcements. This gave San Martín the "breathing room" he needed to organize the Army of the Andes in Mendoza.
While the officers like Morillo were Spanish "Peninsulares," the actual fighting was often between Mestizo/Indigenous Royalists and Mestizo/Indigenous Patriots.
Morillo relied heavily on the Llaneros (rugged cowboys of the plains) who were originally loyal to the King.
However, after Morillo’s harsh treatment of locals, many of these "mixogenic" warriors switched sides to follow José Antonio Páez and join Bolívar’s cause.
The British and the 1820 Mutiny
Morillo's campaign ultimately failed because he couldn't get a second expedition of reinforcements. In 1820, another 20,000 troops were gathered in Spain to help him, but they mutinied in Cádiz (the Riego Revolt), demanding the restoration of the 1812 Constitution. This mutiny effectively ended Spain's hope of a full military reconquest.
Morillo eventually signed an armistice with Bolívar in 1820 and returned to Spain, later becoming a supporter of Isabella II against the Carlists.
1820 Expedition of Cadiz
After Pablo Morillo’s 1815 expedition, the next massive military effort was the Expeditionary Army of 1820, often referred to as the Expedition of Cádiz.
This was intended to be the "final blow" to the independence movements, but it ended up being the event that accidentally secured Latin American independence.
Ferdinand VII assembled a force of over 20,000 veterans and a massive fleet in the port of Cádiz. The objective was to sail to the River Plate (Argentina), seize Buenos Aires, and then link up with Royalist forces in Peru to crush the revolution once and for all.
The Mutiny of Rafael del Riego (1820)
As the troops were preparing to board the ships, a colonel named Rafael del Riego led a liberal military coup.
The soldiers were exhausted from the Napoleonic Wars and had no desire to die of yellow fever or battle in the Americas. Riego demanded the restoration of the 1812 Constitution that Ferdinand VII had abolished. The expedition never sailed. The mutiny forced the King to accept a liberal government (the Trienio Liberal), which shifted Spain's focus toward internal politics and away from the reconquest.
In January 1820, over 20,000 soldiers gathered in Cádiz to sail for the River Plate. Instead of embarking, they mutinied under Rafael del Riego, demanding the restoration of the 1812 Liberal Constitution. This meant: No Reinforcements: The Royalist armies in the Americas were left completely abandoned by Madrid.
Political Chaos: The mutiny sparked a "civil war" between Liberal and Absolutist Royalists in the Andes, weakening their defense against Bolívar and San Martín.
This was the "miracle" the Liberators needed:
With the threat of 20,000 Spanish troops removed from his rear in the River Plate, San Martín was free to launch his expedition to liberate Peru from Chile.
Bolívar: Morillo, deprived of these reinforcements, was forced to sign a six-month armistice with Bolívar, giving the Patriot forces time to reorganize for the final Battle of Carabobo.
1821 Battle of Carabobo.
The failure of the 1820 expedition directly led to the Battle of Carabobo. Deprived of fresh troops, the Spanish commander Pablo Morillo was forced to sign an armistice with Bolívar in November 1820. When fighting resumed, Bolívar’s better-prepared forces crushed the Royalists, effectively securing Venezuelan independence.
1824. The Battle of Ayacucho was the "funeral" of the Spanish Empire in South America. It took place four years after the failed Cádiz expedition. The Royalist army at Ayacucho was a "ghost" of what it could have been if those 20,000 veterans from Cádiz had arrived. Because no new Spanish troops ever came, the independentist forces under Sucre were able to dismantle the last major Spanish military presence on the continent.
The Expedition of Cádiz was "defeated" by its own soldiers in Spain. This failure ensured that the Royalists would eventually lose both Carabobo and Ayacucho.
The failure of the 1820 expedition directly led to the Battle of Carabobo. Deprived of fresh troops, the Spanish commander Pablo Morillo was forced to sign an armistice with Bolívar in November 1820. When fighting resumed, Bolívar’s better-prepared forces crushed the Royalists, effectively securing Venezuelan independence.
1824. The Battle of Ayacucho was the "funeral" of the Spanish Empire in South America. It took place four years after the failed Cádiz expedition. The Royalist army at Ayacucho was a "ghost" of what it could have been if those 20,000 veterans from Cádiz had arrived. Because no new Spanish troops ever came, the independentist forces under Sucre were able to dismantle the last major Spanish military presence on the continent.
The Expedition of Cádiz was "defeated" by its own soldiers in Spain. This failure ensured that the Royalists would eventually lose both Carabobo and Ayacucho.
The "Expedition" of 1829
The last actual attempt at a military reconquest occurred much later, in 1829, known as the Barradas Expedition.
Mexico.
Roughly 3,500 men led by Isidro Barradas.
They landed at Tampico but were defeated by Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna. This was the final gasp of Spanish military attempts to reclaim the mainland colonies.
Without the Riego Mutiny of 1820, the history of the ABC countries and the "90/10" mix we discussed might have been written by Spanish generals for another fifty years.
The last actual attempt at a military reconquest occurred much later, in 1829, known as the Barradas Expedition.
Mexico.
Roughly 3,500 men led by Isidro Barradas.
They landed at Tampico but were defeated by Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna. This was the final gasp of Spanish military attempts to reclaim the mainland colonies.
Without the Riego Mutiny of 1820, the history of the ABC countries and the "90/10" mix we discussed might have been written by Spanish generals for another fifty years.
Félix María Calleja del Rey y de la Gándara, was a Spanish military officer and viceroy of New Spain.
New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain. It was one of several domains established during the Spanish conquest of the Americas, and had its capital in Mexico City. Its jurisdiction comprised a large area of the southern and western portions of North America, mainly what became Mexico and the Southwestern United States, but also California, Florida and Louisiana; Central America (as part of Mexico); the Caribbean like Hispaniola and Martinique, and northern parts of South America, even Colombia; several Pacific archipelagos, including the Philippines and Guam. Additional Asian colonies included "Spanish Formosa", on the island of Taiwan.
New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain. It was one of several domains established during the Spanish conquest of the Americas, and had its capital in Mexico City. Its jurisdiction comprised a large area of the southern and western portions of North America, mainly what became Mexico and the Southwestern United States, but also California, Florida and Louisiana; Central America (as part of Mexico); the Caribbean like Hispaniola and Martinique, and northern parts of South America, even Colombia; several Pacific archipelagos, including the Philippines and Guam. Additional Asian colonies included "Spanish Formosa", on the island of Taiwan.
The Mexican Front
The Mexican Front (1810–1821) was distinct from the South American fronts because it began as a massive social uprising of the poor and ended as a conservative "counter-revolution" led by the very military officers who had previously fought for Spain.
I. The "Grito" and the Social War (1810–1811)
Sept 16, 1810: Grito de Dolores – Father Miguel Hidalgo launched a massive, disorganized revolt of indigenous and mestizo peasants.
Sept 1810: Siege of Guanajuato – A brutal massacre of Spanish and Creole elites at the Alhóndiga de Granaditas, which terrified the upper classes and pushed them to support the Royalists.
Jan 1811: Battle of Calderón Bridge – The professional Royalist army crushed Hidalgo’s mob. Hidalgo was captured and executed shortly after.
II. Morelos and the Organized Resistance (1811–1815)
1811–1815: José María Morelos, a brilliant strategist, took over. He was more organized and declared official independence at the Congress of Chilpancingo (1813).
1815: Morelos was captured and executed. The organized revolution collapsed into small, scattered guerrilla groups.
III. The Guerrilla Stalemate (1816–1820)
1816–1820: The "Dark Years." The Royalists, led by officers like Agustín de Iturbide, effectively controlled the country. Resistance was limited to remote areas led by figures like Vicente Guerrero.
1817: Mina Expedition – A short-lived attempt by Spanish liberal Xavier Mina to join the rebels, but he was quickly defeated.
IV. The Great Switch: The Plan of Iguala (1821)
1820: The Riego Mutiny in Spain (which we discussed) restored a liberal constitution. This terrified the conservative Mexican elite and the Church, who feared losing their privileges.
Feb 1821: Plan of Iguala – The Royalist General Agustín de Iturbide switched sides and joined forces with the rebel leader Vicente Guerrero.
The "Three Guarantees": They formed the Army of the Three Guarantees (Religion, Independence, and Union), uniting the "90/10" DNA of the country.
Sept 27, 1821: Iturbide entered Mexico City. Independence was achieved with almost no further bloodshed because the Royalist army was the new independent army.
V. The Aftershock (1829)
1829: Barradas Expedition – As mentioned, Spain’s last attempt to reconquer Mexico failed at the Battle of Tampico, making Antonio López de Santa Anna a national hero.
The Mexican Front (1810–1821) was distinct from the South American fronts because it began as a massive social uprising of the poor and ended as a conservative "counter-revolution" led by the very military officers who had previously fought for Spain.
I. The "Grito" and the Social War (1810–1811)
Sept 16, 1810: Grito de Dolores – Father Miguel Hidalgo launched a massive, disorganized revolt of indigenous and mestizo peasants.
Sept 1810: Siege of Guanajuato – A brutal massacre of Spanish and Creole elites at the Alhóndiga de Granaditas, which terrified the upper classes and pushed them to support the Royalists.
Jan 1811: Battle of Calderón Bridge – The professional Royalist army crushed Hidalgo’s mob. Hidalgo was captured and executed shortly after.
II. Morelos and the Organized Resistance (1811–1815)
1811–1815: José María Morelos, a brilliant strategist, took over. He was more organized and declared official independence at the Congress of Chilpancingo (1813).
1815: Morelos was captured and executed. The organized revolution collapsed into small, scattered guerrilla groups.
III. The Guerrilla Stalemate (1816–1820)
1816–1820: The "Dark Years." The Royalists, led by officers like Agustín de Iturbide, effectively controlled the country. Resistance was limited to remote areas led by figures like Vicente Guerrero.
1817: Mina Expedition – A short-lived attempt by Spanish liberal Xavier Mina to join the rebels, but he was quickly defeated.
IV. The Great Switch: The Plan of Iguala (1821)
1820: The Riego Mutiny in Spain (which we discussed) restored a liberal constitution. This terrified the conservative Mexican elite and the Church, who feared losing their privileges.
Feb 1821: Plan of Iguala – The Royalist General Agustín de Iturbide switched sides and joined forces with the rebel leader Vicente Guerrero.
The "Three Guarantees": They formed the Army of the Three Guarantees (Religion, Independence, and Union), uniting the "90/10" DNA of the country.
Sept 27, 1821: Iturbide entered Mexico City. Independence was achieved with almost no further bloodshed because the Royalist army was the new independent army.
V. The Aftershock (1829)
1829: Barradas Expedition – As mentioned, Spain’s last attempt to reconquer Mexico failed at the Battle of Tampico, making Antonio López de Santa Anna a national hero.
1829 - Mexico. Battle of Tampico.
In a broad strategic sense, there were three major attempts at a large-scale military reconquest after the Napoleonic Wars ended. These expeditions represent the "rising and falling" tide of Spain's hope to reclaim its American empire.
The Three Major "Waves" of Reconquest
The Successful One: Morillo’s Expedition (1815)
Scale: Over 10,000 veterans and 60 ships.
Result: It successfully reconquered New Granada (Colombia) and Venezuela for a time. This was the "high point" for the Royalists, who controlled almost everything except the Río de la Plata.
The Failed One: The Expedition of Cádiz (1820)
Scale: Over 20,000 troops intended for the River Plate.
Result: It never sailed. The Riego Mutiny forced Ferdinand VII to accept a liberal constitution, effectively abandoning the military reconquest of South America and allowing San Martín and Bolívar to secure final victories.
The Last Gasp: The Barradas Expedition (1829)
Scale: Roughly 3,500 troops led by Isidro Barradas.
Target: Mexico.
Result: It ended in a decisive Mexican victory at the Battle of Tampico. This marked the final battle between Spain and a newly independent American nation on the mainland.
Why these three matter
Each expedition represents a different phase of Ferdinand VII's desperation:
1815 was about vengeance and power after his return.
1820 was about survival and a last attempt to stop the collapse.
1829 was a delusional aftershock, hoping that Mexicans were unhappy enough with their new government to welcome back the King.
By the time the Barradas expedition failed in 1829, Spain finally realized that the mainland was lost forever, leading them to eventually recognize Mexican independence in 1836.
The Three Major "Waves" of Reconquest
The Successful One: Morillo’s Expedition (1815)
Scale: Over 10,000 veterans and 60 ships.
Result: It successfully reconquered New Granada (Colombia) and Venezuela for a time. This was the "high point" for the Royalists, who controlled almost everything except the Río de la Plata.
The Failed One: The Expedition of Cádiz (1820)
Scale: Over 20,000 troops intended for the River Plate.
Result: It never sailed. The Riego Mutiny forced Ferdinand VII to accept a liberal constitution, effectively abandoning the military reconquest of South America and allowing San Martín and Bolívar to secure final victories.
The Last Gasp: The Barradas Expedition (1829)
Scale: Roughly 3,500 troops led by Isidro Barradas.
Target: Mexico.
Result: It ended in a decisive Mexican victory at the Battle of Tampico. This marked the final battle between Spain and a newly independent American nation on the mainland.
Why these three matter
Each expedition represents a different phase of Ferdinand VII's desperation:
1815 was about vengeance and power after his return.
1820 was about survival and a last attempt to stop the collapse.
1829 was a delusional aftershock, hoping that Mexicans were unhappy enough with their new government to welcome back the King.
By the time the Barradas expedition failed in 1829, Spain finally realized that the mainland was lost forever, leading them to eventually recognize Mexican independence in 1836.
That 19-year window is the "Age of Fire" for the Spanish Empire. It began with the collapse of the central government in Spain (1810) and ended with the final realization that the American mainland was gone forever (1829).
Here is the timeline of those three distinct phases:
Phase 1: The Outbreak (1810–1814)
The Spark: Napoleon’s invasion of Spain.
The Action: Local "Juntas" (like in Buenos Aires and Caracas) formed to rule in the name of the captive Ferdinand VII.
The Conflict: Internal "civil wars" broke out between local Loyalists (Royalists) and Patriots.
Phase 2: The Reconquest Attempt (1815–1820)
The Return: Ferdinand VII was released by Napoleon and returned to power as an absolutist.
The Expedition: He sent General Morillo (1815) to crush the rebels. This was the most successful period for Spain; they recaptured almost everything except for Argentina.
The Turning Point: San Martín crossed the Andes (1817) and Bolívar won at Boyacá (1819), putting the Royalists on the defensive.
Phase 3: The Collapse and "Last Gasp" (1820–1829)
The Mutiny: The 1820 Expedition of Cádiz (20,000 men) failed to sail because of a liberal coup in Spain. This was the "death blow" for Spanish hopes.
The Final Battles: The last major Royalist armies were destroyed at Ayacucho (1824).
The Aftershock: Spain made one final, desperate military attempt to reclaim Mexico with the Barradas Expedition (1829), which failed miserably at Tampico.
The 1833 Connection
Curiously, the year 1833 which marked the official end of Ferdinand VII's life. He died that year, leaving Spain to descend into the Carlist Wars. Spain was so busy fighting itself that it finally stopped trying to send expeditions to America, eventually recognizing the new republics one by one starting with Mexico in 1836.
Here is the timeline of those three distinct phases:
Phase 1: The Outbreak (1810–1814)
The Spark: Napoleon’s invasion of Spain.
The Action: Local "Juntas" (like in Buenos Aires and Caracas) formed to rule in the name of the captive Ferdinand VII.
The Conflict: Internal "civil wars" broke out between local Loyalists (Royalists) and Patriots.
Phase 2: The Reconquest Attempt (1815–1820)
The Return: Ferdinand VII was released by Napoleon and returned to power as an absolutist.
The Expedition: He sent General Morillo (1815) to crush the rebels. This was the most successful period for Spain; they recaptured almost everything except for Argentina.
The Turning Point: San Martín crossed the Andes (1817) and Bolívar won at Boyacá (1819), putting the Royalists on the defensive.
Phase 3: The Collapse and "Last Gasp" (1820–1829)
The Mutiny: The 1820 Expedition of Cádiz (20,000 men) failed to sail because of a liberal coup in Spain. This was the "death blow" for Spanish hopes.
The Final Battles: The last major Royalist armies were destroyed at Ayacucho (1824).
The Aftershock: Spain made one final, desperate military attempt to reclaim Mexico with the Barradas Expedition (1829), which failed miserably at Tampico.
The 1833 Connection
Curiously, the year 1833 which marked the official end of Ferdinand VII's life. He died that year, leaving Spain to descend into the Carlist Wars. Spain was so busy fighting itself that it finally stopped trying to send expeditions to America, eventually recognizing the new republics one by one starting with Mexico in 1836.
The Impact of Riego’s Mutiny
The Riego Rebellion (January 1820) was the "death knell" for Spanish hopes in the Americas. It transformed a difficult military situation into an impossible one by cutting off the lifeline of the Empire.
The "Great Expedition" Vanishes
Spain had assembled a massive force of over 20,000 veterans in Cádiz, intended to retake the Río de la Plata and reinforce Peru. When Rafael del Riego led the mutiny to demand a liberal constitution, that army never sailed.
In Peru, Viceroy Pezuela and later Viceroy La Serna realized they were now marooned. Dragones de la Unión, Húsares de Fernando VII, and the Cuzco infantry—had to survive solely on local recruitment and Andean resources.
The Trienio Liberal.
The rebellion forced King Ferdinand VII to accept the Constitution of 1812. This created a massive ideological split within the Royalist officer corps in Peru. Some were "Absolutists" (loyal to the King's total power) and others were "Liberals" (constitutionalists).
The Aznapuquio Mutiny. This internal division led directly to the 1821 coup in Peru, where Royalist officers deposed Viceroy Pezuela. This infighting weakened the command structure just as San Martín was landing on the coast.
The Strategic Shift. Without those 20,000 reinforcements, the Royal Army of Peru was forced into the "War of the Sierra." They abandoned Lima and retreated to the mountains, hoping to outlast the Patriots through attrition. They held out for four more years (1821–1824) with remarkable skill, but as you noted, they were fighting a "ghost empire" that had already collapsed at home in Spain.
By the time of Ayacucho, the Spanish soldiers in Peru knew that no ships were coming from Cádiz. They were the "Last of the Philippines" of South America fighting for a cause that their own motherland had essentially abandoned.
The Mutiny of Aznapuquio (January 29, 1821) - Absolutist vs Liberal
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Left: Joaquín de la Pezuela, (Joaquín González de la Pezuela Griñán y Sánchez de Aragón Muñoz de Velasco), 1st Marquess of Viluma, (May 21, 1761–1830). Spanish military officer and viceroy of Peru during the Peruvian War of Independence.
Right: Jose de la Serna, (José de la Serna e Hinojosa), 1st Count of the Andes (July 28, 1770 – July 6, 1832). Spanish general and colonial official. He was the last Spanish viceroy of Peru to exercise effective power (January 29, 1821 to December 1824)
Right: Jose de la Serna, (José de la Serna e Hinojosa), 1st Count of the Andes (July 28, 1770 – July 6, 1832). Spanish general and colonial official. He was the last Spanish viceroy of Peru to exercise effective power (January 29, 1821 to December 1824)
The conflict between Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela and General José de la Serna represented a critical ideological and strategic split within the Spanish Royalist army in Peru, fueled by the broader struggle between Absolutism and Liberalism in Spain.
Joaquín de la Pezuela (The Absolutist). An "Old Guard" officer and strict loyalist to King Ferdinand VII's absolute power. He mistrusted the constitutional reforms coming from Spain and favored traditional colonial governance.
José de la Serna (The Liberal). A veteran of the Peninsular War who had fought for the Constitution of Cádiz. He and his followers (often called "constitutionalists") believed that the only way to save the empire was through modern liberal reforms and a more aggressive, mobile military strategy.
The Mutiny of Aznapuquio (January 29, 1821)
The tension reached a breaking point following Pezuela's perceived passivity against José de San Martín’s liberating expedition.
The Coup: Royalist officers, led by La Serna and Jerónimo Valdés, staged a military coup—the first in Peruvian history at the Aznapuquio camp. They forced Pezuela to resign, accusing him of military incompetence and failing to support the newly restored Liberal government in Spain (the Trienio Liberal).
La Serna was acclaimed as the new Viceroy, a move later confirmed by the Spanish Crown. He immediately implemented liberal policies, such as limited freedom of the press, though he also centralized military command.
This internal friction severely weakened the Royalist cause. The coup shattered the traditional chain of command, creating a "deliberative" army where officers questioned political authority.
The liberal shift under La Serna eventually led the die-hard absolutist Pedro Antonio de Olañeta to rebel against him in 1823, dividing the Royalist forces just as Bolívar and Sucre were advancing.
The Ayacucho Mystery
Some historians argue that the "liberal" generals (known as Ayacuchos) were so ideologically aligned with their masonic-influenced Patriot counterparts that they may have preferred a negotiated defeat over a victory for an absolutist Spain.
Joaquín de la Pezuela (The Absolutist). An "Old Guard" officer and strict loyalist to King Ferdinand VII's absolute power. He mistrusted the constitutional reforms coming from Spain and favored traditional colonial governance.
José de la Serna (The Liberal). A veteran of the Peninsular War who had fought for the Constitution of Cádiz. He and his followers (often called "constitutionalists") believed that the only way to save the empire was through modern liberal reforms and a more aggressive, mobile military strategy.
The Mutiny of Aznapuquio (January 29, 1821)
The tension reached a breaking point following Pezuela's perceived passivity against José de San Martín’s liberating expedition.
The Coup: Royalist officers, led by La Serna and Jerónimo Valdés, staged a military coup—the first in Peruvian history at the Aznapuquio camp. They forced Pezuela to resign, accusing him of military incompetence and failing to support the newly restored Liberal government in Spain (the Trienio Liberal).
La Serna was acclaimed as the new Viceroy, a move later confirmed by the Spanish Crown. He immediately implemented liberal policies, such as limited freedom of the press, though he also centralized military command.
This internal friction severely weakened the Royalist cause. The coup shattered the traditional chain of command, creating a "deliberative" army where officers questioned political authority.
The liberal shift under La Serna eventually led the die-hard absolutist Pedro Antonio de Olañeta to rebel against him in 1823, dividing the Royalist forces just as Bolívar and Sucre were advancing.
The Ayacucho Mystery
Some historians argue that the "liberal" generals (known as Ayacuchos) were so ideologically aligned with their masonic-influenced Patriot counterparts that they may have preferred a negotiated defeat over a victory for an absolutist Spain.
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Francisco Casimiro Marcó del Pont (1765–1821) was the last Royal Governor of Chile (1815–1817) and a veteran of the Peninsular War. Unlike the tactical field commanders like Canterac or Olañeta, Marcó del Pont's campaigns were defined by his role as a high-ranking administrator and Field Marshal tasked with suppressing the independence movement in Chile.
Peninsular War (Spain) He began his career in the Infantry Regiment of Zaragoza. He fought against Napoleon's forces and was captured during the fall of Valencia in 1809. Sentenced to death, he was spared by Joseph Bonaparte due to his bravery and remained a prisoner until 1814. Reconquista of Chile After being promoted to Field Marshal, he was appointed Captain General of Chile in late 1815. His "campaign" here was largely defensive and political, characterized by harsh repression of patriots and the establishment of a spy network in Cuyo to track the Army of the Andes. Battle of Chacabuco (1817) This was his definitive defeat. While he was the overall commander, he did not lead from the front. He tasked Brigadier Rafael Maroto with the defense. The Royalist forces were surprised by San Martín's crossing and decisively defeated. |
Portrait of Marco del Pont as Royal Governor of Chile 1815 - 1818.
The governors of Chile (pre 1817), is part of the collection of portraits of the governors of Chile. The Collection of Portraits of the Presidents of the Colony . The collection of Portraits of the Governors of Chile is in the National Historical Museum (Chile) and was commissioned by Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna for the 1873 Colonial Exhibition and painted by various artists. It replaces a series of portraits of Chile's colonial governors dating from the colonial era which was destroyed during the wars for independence. |
During the Reconquista period in Chile, Marcó del Pont commanded the Royalist Army of Chile, which included the Talavera Regiment (Regimiento de Talavera); The most feared elite unit, led by Rafael Maroto, known for its strict discipline and role in policing Santiago.
Infantry Regiment of Chillán. A local royalist unit that formed a core part of the defensive lines.
Hussars of the King (Húsares del Rey) A prominent cavalry unit used for scouting and quick strikes against insurgent "guerrillas" like Manuel Rodríguez.
Following the defeat at Chacabuco, Marcó del Pont attempted to flee to Valparaíso to board a ship to Peru but was captured. He was sent to Argentina as a prisoner of war and died in captivity in Luján (or San Luis) in 1819.
Infantry Regiment of Chillán. A local royalist unit that formed a core part of the defensive lines.
Hussars of the King (Húsares del Rey) A prominent cavalry unit used for scouting and quick strikes against insurgent "guerrillas" like Manuel Rodríguez.
Following the defeat at Chacabuco, Marcó del Pont attempted to flee to Valparaíso to board a ship to Peru but was captured. He was sent to Argentina as a prisoner of war and died in captivity in Luján (or San Luis) in 1819.
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Francisco López de Quiroga y Estrada (1787–1838) was a prominent Alto-Peruvian (Today Bolivia) military officer who served as the commander of the Frontier Dragoons (Dragones de la Frontera) during a critical transition in South American history.
His career is a fascinating example of the shifting loyalties during the independence wars. He began his career fighting for the Spanish Royal Army of Peru. He was a dedicated officer under General Pedro Antonio de Olañeta. Francisco Lopez lost an eye during the Battle of Tarbita in 1814 while fighting patriot forces. Command of the Dragoons He eventually rose to command the Frontier Dragoons, an elite cavalry unit stationed in Upper Peru (modern Bolivia). He was leading this unit when news of the Spanish defeat at the Battle of Ayacucho arrived. Switching Sides Upon learning of the Spanish surrender, he chose to transition his loyalty and his unit to the newly forming Republic of Bolivia, rather than continuing a hopeless resistance like his former commander, Olañeta. |
The portrait of Colonel Francisco López de Quiroga was painted by the Afro-Peruvian artist José Gil de Castro (1785–c. 1841).
The painting, which is currently housed at the Casa de la Libertad in Sucre, Bolivia, reflects Gil de Castro's signature style as the "Painter of Liberators". He was renowned for his portraits of the military elite across Chile, Peru, and Bolivia during the transition from colonial rule to independence. |
After joining the Republic, he became a trusted ally of Antonio José de Sucre. He served as the Prefect of Chuquisaca and later the Prefect of La Paz. He is credited with saving Sucre's life during a violent military mutiny in 1828, an act for which he was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General.
His life ended tragically in 1838. After rising up against the "Protector" Andrés de Santa Cruz (the leader of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation), he was captured and executed by firing squad in Oruro.
His life ended tragically in 1838. After rising up against the "Protector" Andrés de Santa Cruz (the leader of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation), he was captured and executed by firing squad in Oruro.
Portrait of Rafael Maroto and his granddaughter Margarita Borgoño. Artist Raymond Monvoisin. National Historical Museum of Chile.
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Rafael Maroto Yserns (1783–1853) was a pivotal Spanish general who served as a high-ranking military leader in both the South American Wars of Independence and the First Carlist War in Spain. He is best known for commanding the Royalist forces at the Battle of Chacabuco and later for signing the treaty that ended the Carlist conflict.
Campaigns in South America (1813–1825) Under the administration of Marcó del Pont, Maroto was the primary military strategist in Chile. Maroto famously led the Regimiento de Talavera, an elite infantry unit sent from Spain to suppress the independence movement. This unit was known for its strict discipline and was the backbone of the "Reconquista" of Chile. Battle of Chacabuco (1817) Tasked by Marcó del Pont to stop San Martín’s Army of the Andes, Maroto led approximately 1,500–2,500 royalist troops. He was decisively defeated, leading to the fall of Santiago and the end of the Spanish Reconquista in Chile. |
Rivalry with Canterac
After the defeat in Chile, Maroto served in Peru and Charcas (modern Bolivia). His career in the Americas ended in 1825 when he resigned his command following a bitter personal and professional rivalry with General José de Canterac.
The First Carlist War & The "Embrace of Vergara"
Returning to Spain, Maroto became a leader for the Carlist cause (supporting the pretender Don Carlos).
Commander-in-Chief
By 1838, he was the Commander-in-Chief of the Carlist army. He became a controversial figure after executing four of his own generals at Estella who he believed were conspiring against him.
The Convention of Vergara (1839)
Realizing the war was unwinnable, Maroto negotiated with the Liberal General Baldomero Espartero. They signed the Convention of Vergara, also known as the "Abrazo de Vergara" (Embrace of Vergara), which ended the war in northern Spain. This act led many hardline Carlists to label him a traitor.
Late Life and Death
In a twist of history, Maroto eventually returned to Chile in 1846, the very country he once fought to keep under Spanish rule. He lived on his late wife’s hacienda in Concón until his death in Valparaíso in 1853.
After the defeat in Chile, Maroto served in Peru and Charcas (modern Bolivia). His career in the Americas ended in 1825 when he resigned his command following a bitter personal and professional rivalry with General José de Canterac.
The First Carlist War & The "Embrace of Vergara"
Returning to Spain, Maroto became a leader for the Carlist cause (supporting the pretender Don Carlos).
Commander-in-Chief
By 1838, he was the Commander-in-Chief of the Carlist army. He became a controversial figure after executing four of his own generals at Estella who he believed were conspiring against him.
The Convention of Vergara (1839)
Realizing the war was unwinnable, Maroto negotiated with the Liberal General Baldomero Espartero. They signed the Convention of Vergara, also known as the "Abrazo de Vergara" (Embrace of Vergara), which ended the war in northern Spain. This act led many hardline Carlists to label him a traitor.
Late Life and Death
In a twist of history, Maroto eventually returned to Chile in 1846, the very country he once fought to keep under Spanish rule. He lived on his late wife’s hacienda in Concón until his death in Valparaíso in 1853.
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General Jose de Canterac arrived in the Americas in 1816, nearly 100 years before the Panama Canal was built (1914). At that time, troops typically crossed the Isthmus of Panama by land or sailed around Cape Horn.
Arrival in Peru. While he did serve under Pablo Morillo in Venezuela initially, he was specifically sent to Peru in 1818 to reinforce the Viceroyalty there, which is where he made his name as a formidable cavalry commander. He was relatively young for his rank about 38 years old at the moment shown in the painting (the Battle of Ayacucho). His French heritage and rapid rise in the Spanish army made him a unique figure; he was known for being technically brilliant but perhaps too rigid in his European tactics for the rugged Andean terrain. In the Capitulation of Ayacucho painting, his posture reflects that weight of responsibility signing away an empire that he had spent nearly a decade defending. |
Portrait of General Canterac Preserved in the Alcázar of Toledo, Army Museum, Spain. Unidentified Painter.
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General José de Canterac met a tragic and ironic end (47 years old) on January 18, 1835, at the Puerta del Sol in Madrid. After returning to Spain following his defeat at Ayacucho, he was appointed Captain General of Madrid, a position of immense responsibility during a time of extreme political instability in Spain.
His death occurred during a military insurrection led by Lieutenant Cardero and the Aragon regiment. The details of his final moments highlight the same "temerity and sense of duty" he was known for in South America: Rebels had taken over the Casa de Correos (Post Office) in the heart of Madrid. Canterac, attempting to quell the uprising through personal authority rather than a large-scale military assault, approached the rebels. According to historical accounts, he shouted "¡Viva el Rey!" (Long live the King!) to the mutineers. In response, a discharge of gunfire from a group of armed civilians killed him instantly. |
Following his death, Queen Isabella II (under the regency of her mother, Maria Christina) honored his widow, Manuela Domínguez y Navas, with the nobility title of Countess of Casa-Canterac (Condesa de Casa-Canterac) in recognition of the general's services to the crown.
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Isabel II was the same queen who arranged the exhumation of Liniers' body. In 1861, she formally requested the repatriation of the remains of Santiago de Liniers from the Argentine government. Liniers, the former Viceroy of the Río de la Plata and hero of the resistance against the British invasions, had been executed in 1810 during the Argentine War of Independence and buried in a mass grave.
After the successful repatriation request to President Santiago Derqui by Queen Isabella II in 1861, the remains of Liniers (along with those of Juan Antonio Gutiérrez de la Concha) were shipped to Spain on the frigate Ifigenia in 1862. In 1863, a grand funeral ceremony was held to honor the man who had been both a Viceroy and a hero of the resistance against the British. |
Portrait of Queen Isabella II of Spain. Oil on canvas, by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1852. Located in the Royal Palace of Madrid.
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His remains were interred in the Pantheon of Illustrious Sailors (Panteón de Marinos Ilustres) in San Fernando, Cádiz.
He rests there alongside other legendary figures of the Spanish Navy, such as Federico Gravina (commander at Trafalgar) and Blas de Lezo (the "Half-Man" who defended Cartagena de Indias).
The Pantheon remains a major site of military and historical pilgrimage in Spain, serving as a neoclassical mausoleum dedicated to the most prominent mariners in the nation's history.
He rests there alongside other legendary figures of the Spanish Navy, such as Federico Gravina (commander at Trafalgar) and Blas de Lezo (the "Half-Man" who defended Cartagena de Indias).
The Pantheon remains a major site of military and historical pilgrimage in Spain, serving as a neoclassical mausoleum dedicated to the most prominent mariners in the nation's history.
The Capitulation of Ayacucho, signed on December 9, 1824. The end of the Spanish Empire in South America
In the painting "La Capitulación de Ayacucho" (1924) by Daniel Hernández Morillo, the scene depicts the surrender of the Spanish Royalist forces following the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824.
Antonio José de Sucre (Patriot) Seated at the table on the right, accepting the surrender.
José de Canterac (Realist) standing on the left, signing the document on behalf of the wounded Viceroy La Serna.
The group includes figures such as Agustín Gamarra, José de La Mar (seen in the brown poncho), and the English general Guillermo (William) Miller.
Antonio José de Sucre (Patriot) Seated at the table on the right, accepting the surrender.
José de Canterac (Realist) standing on the left, signing the document on behalf of the wounded Viceroy La Serna.
The group includes figures such as Agustín Gamarra, José de La Mar (seen in the brown poncho), and the English general Guillermo (William) Miller.
History and Battles of the Regimiento "Unión"
The Regimiento de Infantería de la Unión (The Union Infantry Regiment) was originally created in Spain during the Peninsular War against Napoleon. It was formed by General Pablo Morillo in Galicia around 1810 using veteran Spanish soldiers and volunteers.
When Morillo was sent to South America in 1815 to crush the revolutions (the famous "Expedición Pacificadora"), the Regimiento Unión came across the Atlantic with him. It eventually marched into Upper Peru (Bolivia) and Lower Peru, becoming a core elite vanguard unit for the Royalist Army.
Major Battles
The Venezuelan and New Granada Campaigns (1815–1818): They fought under Morillo against Simón Bolívar's early forces.
The Peruvian Highlands Campaigns: As the war shifted south, they became attached to the Army of Upper Peru, serving under key commanders like General Jerónimo Valdés and General Pedro Antonio Olañeta.
The Campaign of 1824: They were highly active during the internal struggles. Interestingly, because General Valdés was a moderate Royalist and Olañeta was a radical absolutist, the regiment itself fractured during Olañeta's 1824 rebellion.
The Battle of Ayacucho (December 9, 1824): A major portion of the Unión regiment fought in the Vanguard Division under General Valdés. They suffered heavy casualties and many surrendered on the field.
The Battle of Tumusla (April 1, 1825): The remaining operational fragments of the unit, specifically its Cazadores (Light Infantry/Skirmisher) components, accompanied Olañeta and Lieutenant Colonel Lebrancon south to face the defected Colonel Medinaceli. It was here that the regiment fought its absolute final engagement for the Spanish Crown.
The Uniform of the Regimiento Unión
By the time of the late Andean campaigns (1820–1825), Spanish Royalist uniform regulations were heavily disrupted by supply shortages, forcing troops to use local textiles. However, as an elite line and light infantry regiment, their official dress code followed the strict 1815 Spanish Expeditionary Regulations.
The Coatee (Guerrera) Color: The main body of the coat was dark blue (or sometimes turquoise-blue, depending on the dye availability).
Facings (Cuello y Vueltas): The collar, lapels, and cuffs were bright red.
Piping (Vivos): White or yellow piping lined the edges of the coat and turnbacks.
Buttons: Brass or white metal buttons stamped with the regiment's name or a royal crown.
Trousers (Pantalones)
Campaign Wear: For everyday marching through the rugged, freezing Andean plateaus, they wore heavy, locally produced wool trousers, usually in grey, brown, or off-white.
Gala/Summer Dress: White linen or cotton trousers.
Gaiters: Black wool gaiters worn over the shoes to protect against mud and brush.
Headgear (Prenda de Cabeza)
The Shako: They wore a tall, cylindrical black leather or felt shako (French-style, adopted by Spain).
Details: The front featured a brass plate bearing the Spanish royal coat of arms. At the top sat a red cockade (symbol of the Spanish monarchy) topped with a small red or white wool pompom/plume.
The "Cazadores" (Skirmisher) Distinction
Since Lebrancon and Medinaceli's components were Cazadores (the elite light infantry wing of the regiment), they had slight visual differences from standard line infantry to mark their status as agile sharpshooters. They often wore green epaulets or green piping instead of standard white or red. Their shako plates occasionally featured a hunting horn symbol (the universal emblem of light infantry/chasseurs) instead of a standard infantry crest.They carried lighter equipment and ammunition pouches designed for rapid movement across the mountainous terrain of Potosí.
The Regimiento de Infantería de la Unión (The Union Infantry Regiment) was originally created in Spain during the Peninsular War against Napoleon. It was formed by General Pablo Morillo in Galicia around 1810 using veteran Spanish soldiers and volunteers.
When Morillo was sent to South America in 1815 to crush the revolutions (the famous "Expedición Pacificadora"), the Regimiento Unión came across the Atlantic with him. It eventually marched into Upper Peru (Bolivia) and Lower Peru, becoming a core elite vanguard unit for the Royalist Army.
Major Battles
The Venezuelan and New Granada Campaigns (1815–1818): They fought under Morillo against Simón Bolívar's early forces.
The Peruvian Highlands Campaigns: As the war shifted south, they became attached to the Army of Upper Peru, serving under key commanders like General Jerónimo Valdés and General Pedro Antonio Olañeta.
The Campaign of 1824: They were highly active during the internal struggles. Interestingly, because General Valdés was a moderate Royalist and Olañeta was a radical absolutist, the regiment itself fractured during Olañeta's 1824 rebellion.
The Battle of Ayacucho (December 9, 1824): A major portion of the Unión regiment fought in the Vanguard Division under General Valdés. They suffered heavy casualties and many surrendered on the field.
The Battle of Tumusla (April 1, 1825): The remaining operational fragments of the unit, specifically its Cazadores (Light Infantry/Skirmisher) components, accompanied Olañeta and Lieutenant Colonel Lebrancon south to face the defected Colonel Medinaceli. It was here that the regiment fought its absolute final engagement for the Spanish Crown.
The Uniform of the Regimiento Unión
By the time of the late Andean campaigns (1820–1825), Spanish Royalist uniform regulations were heavily disrupted by supply shortages, forcing troops to use local textiles. However, as an elite line and light infantry regiment, their official dress code followed the strict 1815 Spanish Expeditionary Regulations.
The Coatee (Guerrera) Color: The main body of the coat was dark blue (or sometimes turquoise-blue, depending on the dye availability).
Facings (Cuello y Vueltas): The collar, lapels, and cuffs were bright red.
Piping (Vivos): White or yellow piping lined the edges of the coat and turnbacks.
Buttons: Brass or white metal buttons stamped with the regiment's name or a royal crown.
Trousers (Pantalones)
Campaign Wear: For everyday marching through the rugged, freezing Andean plateaus, they wore heavy, locally produced wool trousers, usually in grey, brown, or off-white.
Gala/Summer Dress: White linen or cotton trousers.
Gaiters: Black wool gaiters worn over the shoes to protect against mud and brush.
Headgear (Prenda de Cabeza)
The Shako: They wore a tall, cylindrical black leather or felt shako (French-style, adopted by Spain).
Details: The front featured a brass plate bearing the Spanish royal coat of arms. At the top sat a red cockade (symbol of the Spanish monarchy) topped with a small red or white wool pompom/plume.
The "Cazadores" (Skirmisher) Distinction
Since Lebrancon and Medinaceli's components were Cazadores (the elite light infantry wing of the regiment), they had slight visual differences from standard line infantry to mark their status as agile sharpshooters. They often wore green epaulets or green piping instead of standard white or red. Their shako plates occasionally featured a hunting horn symbol (the universal emblem of light infantry/chasseurs) instead of a standard infantry crest.They carried lighter equipment and ammunition pouches designed for rapid movement across the mountainous terrain of Potosí.
1825 Battle of Tumulsa. Pedro Antonio Oñaleta and the Last Royalist Resistance
Following the massive defeat at Ayacucho in December 1824, Spanish power evaporated across the continent. General Pedro Antonio Olañeta was completely isolated in Upper Peru. Marshal Antonio José de Sucre advanced from the north with the United Liberation Army (composed of Colombian and Peruvian troops), while local guerrilla factions squeezed Olañeta from within.
The Internal Defection
The final, fatal blow to Olañeta did not actually come from Sucre's frontline, but from his own ranks. Colonel Carlos Medinaceli Lizarazu, managing a vital Royalist battalion, realized the royalist cause was finished. He defected to the Patriot side, taking half of Olañeta's remaining forces with him.
Instead of surrendering to Sucre or Medinaceli Lizarazu, a furious Olañeta chose to march south and attack his former subordinate. This culminated in the Battle of Tumusla on April 1, 1825, where Olañeta was killed and his remaining forces dissolved.
General Pedro Antonio Olañeta flatly refused to obey the Capitulation of Ayacucho. When Viceroy José de la Serna surrendered Spain's entire army in Peru on December 9, 1824, Olañeta viewed the act as a spineless betrayal. He believed the Viceroy lacked the authority to surrender Upper Peru (modern Bolivia), which Olañeta controlled.
Olañeta was a radical royalist absolutist, born in February 1774 in the small mountain village of Elgeta (specifically in the hamlet of Ubera), located in the province og Gipuzkoa whitin the Basque region. He was convinced he could maintain a Spanish stronghold in the mountains, hold out for reinforcements from the Spanish Crown, and eventually reconquer the continent. His stubborn refusal to obey the surrender is exactly what extended the war into 1825 and forced the final showdown at Tumusla.
Before the split, General Olañeta split his remaining forces into key strategic defensive positions in early 1825 as Marshal Sucre advanced. General Olañeta had whitin between 700 and 1,732 men under his command at the Battle of Tumusla, against approximately 6,300 to 7,300 men on the Patriot side.
The Realist Forces of the "Chichas" Infantry Battalion: Stationed at the critical fortress of Cotagaita under the command of Colonel Carlos Medinaceli who defected to the Patriot dorces.
The "Unión" Infantry Battalion: Stationed at Chuquisaca (Sucre) under the command of General Jerónimo Valdés.
Headquarters / Escort Force: Commanded directly by General Pedro Antonio Olañeta, located between Potosí and Vitichi.
General Olañeta's army at Tumusla was composed almost entirely of local Upper Peruvian troops (Bolivian people*), regional border dragoons (Dragones de la Frontera), and his personal Infante Don Carlos bodyguard battalion. The European expeditionary units like the Extremadura, which had arrived years earlier from Spain to reinforce Lower Peru, were completely neutralized or repatriated after the Ayacucho surrender.
*The overwhelming majority of the infantry and common soldiers on both sides of the Battle of Tumusla were local indigenous, mestizo, and Creole people from Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia), while the high command was heavily Spanish or European.
The Internal Defection
The final, fatal blow to Olañeta did not actually come from Sucre's frontline, but from his own ranks. Colonel Carlos Medinaceli Lizarazu, managing a vital Royalist battalion, realized the royalist cause was finished. He defected to the Patriot side, taking half of Olañeta's remaining forces with him.
Instead of surrendering to Sucre or Medinaceli Lizarazu, a furious Olañeta chose to march south and attack his former subordinate. This culminated in the Battle of Tumusla on April 1, 1825, where Olañeta was killed and his remaining forces dissolved.
General Pedro Antonio Olañeta flatly refused to obey the Capitulation of Ayacucho. When Viceroy José de la Serna surrendered Spain's entire army in Peru on December 9, 1824, Olañeta viewed the act as a spineless betrayal. He believed the Viceroy lacked the authority to surrender Upper Peru (modern Bolivia), which Olañeta controlled.
Olañeta was a radical royalist absolutist, born in February 1774 in the small mountain village of Elgeta (specifically in the hamlet of Ubera), located in the province og Gipuzkoa whitin the Basque region. He was convinced he could maintain a Spanish stronghold in the mountains, hold out for reinforcements from the Spanish Crown, and eventually reconquer the continent. His stubborn refusal to obey the surrender is exactly what extended the war into 1825 and forced the final showdown at Tumusla.
Before the split, General Olañeta split his remaining forces into key strategic defensive positions in early 1825 as Marshal Sucre advanced. General Olañeta had whitin between 700 and 1,732 men under his command at the Battle of Tumusla, against approximately 6,300 to 7,300 men on the Patriot side.
The Realist Forces of the "Chichas" Infantry Battalion: Stationed at the critical fortress of Cotagaita under the command of Colonel Carlos Medinaceli who defected to the Patriot dorces.
The "Unión" Infantry Battalion: Stationed at Chuquisaca (Sucre) under the command of General Jerónimo Valdés.
Headquarters / Escort Force: Commanded directly by General Pedro Antonio Olañeta, located between Potosí and Vitichi.
General Olañeta's army at Tumusla was composed almost entirely of local Upper Peruvian troops (Bolivian people*), regional border dragoons (Dragones de la Frontera), and his personal Infante Don Carlos bodyguard battalion. The European expeditionary units like the Extremadura, which had arrived years earlier from Spain to reinforce Lower Peru, were completely neutralized or repatriated after the Ayacucho surrender.
*The overwhelming majority of the infantry and common soldiers on both sides of the Battle of Tumusla were local indigenous, mestizo, and Creole people from Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia), while the high command was heavily Spanish or European.
While the "official" end of the Spanish Empire in South America is often cited as the Battle of Ayacucho (December 1824), General Olañeta famously refused to recognize that surrender. He considered the other Spanish generals "liberals" and traitors to the King's absolute power.
Before the war even ended, Olañeta had actually rebelled against the Spanish Viceroy in Peru, claiming the Viceroy wasn't being loyal enough to King Ferdinand VII.
While the rest of the continent was already celebrating independence, Olañeta was still fighting in the mountains of Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia).
The King was so impressed by this loyalty and solitary defiance that he named him Viceroy of the Rio de la Plata.
Before the war even ended, Olañeta had actually rebelled against the Spanish Viceroy in Peru, claiming the Viceroy wasn't being loyal enough to King Ferdinand VII.
While the rest of the continent was already celebrating independence, Olañeta was still fighting in the mountains of Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia).
The King was so impressed by this loyalty and solitary defiance that he named him Viceroy of the Rio de la Plata.
Olañeta's Burial
Following the battle on April 1, 1825, a mortally wounded Olañeta was captured by Colonel Medinaceli's forces. He succumbed to a gunshot wound to the chest and died the next day on April 2, 1825.
Because of his high status as a Spanish military leader (and the fact that Ferdinand VII had unknowingly appointed him Viceroy of Peru), he was not thrown into an anonymous trenches with the common infantry. He was buried near the battlefield in Patirana. Today, historians and local cultural projects in the Potosí Department promote the tomb as the literal geographic marker that brought an end to the Spanish American wars of independence.
Following the battle on April 1, 1825, a mortally wounded Olañeta was captured by Colonel Medinaceli's forces. He succumbed to a gunshot wound to the chest and died the next day on April 2, 1825.
Because of his high status as a Spanish military leader (and the fact that Ferdinand VII had unknowingly appointed him Viceroy of Peru), he was not thrown into an anonymous trenches with the common infantry. He was buried near the battlefield in Patirana. Today, historians and local cultural projects in the Potosí Department promote the tomb as the literal geographic marker that brought an end to the Spanish American wars of independence.
13th and final Viceroy of the Río de la Plata (On paper)
After his death, only a few isolated coastal pockets remained, like the Callao Fortress in Peru (which held out until 1826) and the island of Chiloé in Chile. But in terms of a field army, Olañeta was the final chapter.
In the Iberian Peninsula , King Ferdinand VII, after learning of the capitulation of Ayacucho by Casariego, proceeded on July 12, 1825, to appoint Olañeta as captain, governor and viceroy of the Río de la Plata . The appointment was made after he had already died, without the king yet knowing it.
After his death, only a few isolated coastal pockets remained, like the Callao Fortress in Peru (which held out until 1826) and the island of Chiloé in Chile. But in terms of a field army, Olañeta was the final chapter.
In the Iberian Peninsula , King Ferdinand VII, after learning of the capitulation of Ayacucho by Casariego, proceeded on July 12, 1825, to appoint Olañeta as captain, governor and viceroy of the Río de la Plata . The appointment was made after he had already died, without the king yet knowing it.
Simon Bolivar, Francisco Miranda, Jose de San Martin, Bernardino Rivadavia.
Both Francisco de Miranda and Bernardino Rivadavia represented the "intellectual" and "political" wings of the revolution, but their relationships with the "men of the sword" (Bolívar and San Martín) were fraught with tension, betrayal, and clashing visions for the future of the continent.
Both Francisco de Miranda and Bernardino Rivadavia represented the "intellectual" and "political" wings of the revolution, but their relationships with the "men of the sword" (Bolívar and San Martín) were fraught with tension, betrayal, and clashing visions for the future of the continent.
The meeting between José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar in July 1822, known as the Guayaquil Conference, remains one of the most famous and mysterious encounters in history because no official record was kept. However, letters and historical accounts confirm that a central point of their disagreement was the future form of government for the newly liberated nations, particularly Peru.
San Martín’s Monarchist Plan
European Monarchy: San Martín believed that the deep political divisions and social instability in the former Spanish colonies would lead to chaos under a republican system.
The Proposal: He advocated for the establishment of constitutional monarchies and specifically favored placing a European prince on the throne of Peru.
British Model: San Martín greatly admired the British model of constitutional rule and hoped it could provide the institutional stability necessary for the new nations to prosper.
Bolívar’s Republican Stance
Staunch Republicanism: Bolívar firmly rejected the idea of a monarchy. He believed that the republican system offered the greatest assurance of long-term stability and feared that a monarch would eventually be viewed as a tyrant.
Continental Vision: Bolívar dreamed of a series of independent republics—or a vast federation—rather than independent monarchies.
Outcome of the Conference
The clash between San Martín’s "monarchism" and Bolívar’s "republicanism" was a primary reason the conference was considered a political failure.
San Martín’s Sacrifice: Realizing they could not reach an agreement and that Bolívar would not share command or provide full military support as long as San Martín remained in power, San Martín made a monumental decision.
Abdication and Exile: He resigned his post as "Protector of Peru," returned to Argentina, and shortly after went into self-imposed exile in France, leaving Bolívar to complete the final liberation of South America.
San Martín’s Monarchist Plan
European Monarchy: San Martín believed that the deep political divisions and social instability in the former Spanish colonies would lead to chaos under a republican system.
The Proposal: He advocated for the establishment of constitutional monarchies and specifically favored placing a European prince on the throne of Peru.
British Model: San Martín greatly admired the British model of constitutional rule and hoped it could provide the institutional stability necessary for the new nations to prosper.
Bolívar’s Republican Stance
Staunch Republicanism: Bolívar firmly rejected the idea of a monarchy. He believed that the republican system offered the greatest assurance of long-term stability and feared that a monarch would eventually be viewed as a tyrant.
Continental Vision: Bolívar dreamed of a series of independent republics—or a vast federation—rather than independent monarchies.
Outcome of the Conference
The clash between San Martín’s "monarchism" and Bolívar’s "republicanism" was a primary reason the conference was considered a political failure.
San Martín’s Sacrifice: Realizing they could not reach an agreement and that Bolívar would not share command or provide full military support as long as San Martín remained in power, San Martín made a monumental decision.
Abdication and Exile: He resigned his post as "Protector of Peru," returned to Argentina, and shortly after went into self-imposed exile in France, leaving Bolívar to complete the final liberation of South America.
The political feud between José de San Martín and Bernardino Rivadavia is one of the most critical fractures in Argentine history, as it fundamentally altered the course of the Independence wars and drove the Liberator into his long exile.
The Defunding: The government in Buenos Aires (under Rivadavia) had essentially abandoned him.
The Spanish Strength: The Spanish army in the Peruvian highlands remained a formidable force of nearly 20,000 men. San Martín knew he did not have enough troops to finish the war alone.
The Offer: San Martín famously offered to serve under Bolívar’s command to ensure victory. Bolívar, however, refused, stating that "two suns cannot shine under the same firmament."
Some Masonic historians suggest that Bolívar had reached a higher degree (specifically the 33rd degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite).
The Defunding: The government in Buenos Aires (under Rivadavia) had essentially abandoned him.
The Spanish Strength: The Spanish army in the Peruvian highlands remained a formidable force of nearly 20,000 men. San Martín knew he did not have enough troops to finish the war alone.
The Offer: San Martín famously offered to serve under Bolívar’s command to ensure victory. Bolívar, however, refused, stating that "two suns cannot shine under the same firmament."
Some Masonic historians suggest that Bolívar had reached a higher degree (specifically the 33rd degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite).
Baring Loan of 1824. (The origin of Argentina's external debt).
As Minister of Government under Governor Juan Gregorio de Las Heras, Rivadavia pushed for a loan of £1 million(approx. 5 million pesos). The stated goals were to modernize the port of Buenos Aires, establish coastal cities, and provide running water to the capital. The loan was negotiated at a 70% placement rate, meaning Buenos Aires received only £700,000 but owed the full £1 million. After further deductions for commissions, insurance, and two years of advanced interest and amortization, the government received only about £552,700.
Most of the funds did not reach Argentina in cash but as bills of exchange. Instead of the intended public works, the money was diverted to military costs (specifically the War with Brazil) and private loans to local merchants, many of whom were the very negotiators of the deal.
The loan was backed by a mortgage on all public lands of the province of Buenos Aires through the law of Emphyteusis, which prevented the land from being sold.
80-Year Debt: Argentina did not finish paying off this initial loan until 1904. By the time it was settled, the country had paid approximately £23.7 million, more than 20 times the original nominal amount.
As Minister of Government under Governor Juan Gregorio de Las Heras, Rivadavia pushed for a loan of £1 million(approx. 5 million pesos). The stated goals were to modernize the port of Buenos Aires, establish coastal cities, and provide running water to the capital. The loan was negotiated at a 70% placement rate, meaning Buenos Aires received only £700,000 but owed the full £1 million. After further deductions for commissions, insurance, and two years of advanced interest and amortization, the government received only about £552,700.
Most of the funds did not reach Argentina in cash but as bills of exchange. Instead of the intended public works, the money was diverted to military costs (specifically the War with Brazil) and private loans to local merchants, many of whom were the very negotiators of the deal.
The loan was backed by a mortgage on all public lands of the province of Buenos Aires through the law of Emphyteusis, which prevented the land from being sold.
80-Year Debt: Argentina did not finish paying off this initial loan until 1904. By the time it was settled, the country had paid approximately £23.7 million, more than 20 times the original nominal amount.
The independence of South America brought immediate, profound challenges that replaced colonial order with systemic instability, economic collapse, and territorial fragmentation.
1811 - 1828. Disintegration of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (and its successor, the United Provinces) into four distinct modern nations: Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia.
Fragmentation of Gran Colombia (1830).
The most significant immediate consequence in the north was the collapse of Simón Bolívar’s dream of a unified superstate.
Internal regionalism and opposition to Bolívar’s centralism led to the formal separation into three sovereign nations: Venezuela, Ecuador, and New Granada (modern-day Colombia and Panama).
Transitioning to independent states was violent; Colombia alone faced eight civil wars and 14 local wars during the 1800s.
After surviving an assassination attempt in 1828 and witnessing the breakup of his republic, Bolívar died in 1830, famously lamenting that he had "plowed the sea".
1823. Mexico’s disintegration was uniquely shaped by its status as the former Viceroyalty of New Spain. While Gran Colombia and Río de la Plata broke apart internally, Mexico faced both internal secession and external conquest.
The Separation of Central America (1823)
At the time of independence (1821), the Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide briefly included almost all of Central America.
The Break: When Iturbide’s empire collapsed in 1823, the Central American provinces (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) declared their independence from Mexico. The Exception: Only the province of Chiapas chose to remain part of the new Mexican Republic.
The Loss of the North (1836–1853)
Unlike the other superstates, Mexico’s largest territorial "disintegration" was caused by its neighbor, the United States.
Texas Revolution (1836): Anglo-American settlers in Texas revolted against the centralist government of Santa Anna, forming the independent Republic of Texas before being annexed by the U.S. in 1845.
Mexican-American War (1846–1848): Following Mexico's defeat, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo forced the country to cede 55% of its territory (the "Mexican Cession"), including modern-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.
Gadsden Purchase (1853): A final strip of land in southern Arizona and New Mexico was sold to the U.S. for $10 million to facilitate a railroad route.
Mexico also faced serious internal rebellions where regions attempted to leave the union entirely.
Republic of Yucatán (1841–1848)
Republic of the Rio Grande (1840)
1833. The British occupation of the Malvinas Islands (Falkland Islands) in 1833 is a separate event from the naval blockades, but they are deeply linked through the foreign policy of Juan Manuel de Rosas and the broader struggle for national sovereignty.
1837 - 1839. Salta and Jujuy. Confederation Argentina. During the War against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1837–1839), Marshal Santa Cruz attempted to annex parts of Jujuy and Salta.
The period from 1838 to 1850 saw two distinct European naval blockades of Buenos Aires, both of which Juan Manuel de Rosas resisted to assert Argentine sovereignty and protectionist trade policies.
1845. Juan Manuel de Rosas focused his fiercest resistance on the Mesopotamian provinces (Entre Ríos and Corrientes) and the Banda Oriental (Uruguay), as those were the primary targets of the Anglo-French blockade. While the European powers didn't directly attempt to turn Salta and Jujuy into independent states, they supported Bolivian and Unitarist interests that threatened to peel them away.
(While the Spanish territories were shattering into smaller republics, the Empire of Brazil (first under the influence of Carlota Joaquina and later her son Pedro I) not only maintained its territorial integrity but aggressively expanded southward)
In a geopolitical sense, Carlotism the strategy of using the Portuguese-Brazilian monarchy to dominate the Río de la Plata—was the only expansionist project of that era that actually succeeded in permanently altering the map.
While Carlota Joaquina herself never wore a Spanish-American crown, her "project" achieved several long-term victories that her Spanish neighbors couldn't match
1811 - 1828. Disintegration of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (and its successor, the United Provinces) into four distinct modern nations: Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia.
Fragmentation of Gran Colombia (1830).
The most significant immediate consequence in the north was the collapse of Simón Bolívar’s dream of a unified superstate.
Internal regionalism and opposition to Bolívar’s centralism led to the formal separation into three sovereign nations: Venezuela, Ecuador, and New Granada (modern-day Colombia and Panama).
Transitioning to independent states was violent; Colombia alone faced eight civil wars and 14 local wars during the 1800s.
After surviving an assassination attempt in 1828 and witnessing the breakup of his republic, Bolívar died in 1830, famously lamenting that he had "plowed the sea".
1823. Mexico’s disintegration was uniquely shaped by its status as the former Viceroyalty of New Spain. While Gran Colombia and Río de la Plata broke apart internally, Mexico faced both internal secession and external conquest.
The Separation of Central America (1823)
At the time of independence (1821), the Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide briefly included almost all of Central America.
The Break: When Iturbide’s empire collapsed in 1823, the Central American provinces (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) declared their independence from Mexico. The Exception: Only the province of Chiapas chose to remain part of the new Mexican Republic.
The Loss of the North (1836–1853)
Unlike the other superstates, Mexico’s largest territorial "disintegration" was caused by its neighbor, the United States.
Texas Revolution (1836): Anglo-American settlers in Texas revolted against the centralist government of Santa Anna, forming the independent Republic of Texas before being annexed by the U.S. in 1845.
Mexican-American War (1846–1848): Following Mexico's defeat, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo forced the country to cede 55% of its territory (the "Mexican Cession"), including modern-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.
Gadsden Purchase (1853): A final strip of land in southern Arizona and New Mexico was sold to the U.S. for $10 million to facilitate a railroad route.
Mexico also faced serious internal rebellions where regions attempted to leave the union entirely.
Republic of Yucatán (1841–1848)
Republic of the Rio Grande (1840)
1833. The British occupation of the Malvinas Islands (Falkland Islands) in 1833 is a separate event from the naval blockades, but they are deeply linked through the foreign policy of Juan Manuel de Rosas and the broader struggle for national sovereignty.
1837 - 1839. Salta and Jujuy. Confederation Argentina. During the War against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1837–1839), Marshal Santa Cruz attempted to annex parts of Jujuy and Salta.
The period from 1838 to 1850 saw two distinct European naval blockades of Buenos Aires, both of which Juan Manuel de Rosas resisted to assert Argentine sovereignty and protectionist trade policies.
1845. Juan Manuel de Rosas focused his fiercest resistance on the Mesopotamian provinces (Entre Ríos and Corrientes) and the Banda Oriental (Uruguay), as those were the primary targets of the Anglo-French blockade. While the European powers didn't directly attempt to turn Salta and Jujuy into independent states, they supported Bolivian and Unitarist interests that threatened to peel them away.
(While the Spanish territories were shattering into smaller republics, the Empire of Brazil (first under the influence of Carlota Joaquina and later her son Pedro I) not only maintained its territorial integrity but aggressively expanded southward)
In a geopolitical sense, Carlotism the strategy of using the Portuguese-Brazilian monarchy to dominate the Río de la Plata—was the only expansionist project of that era that actually succeeded in permanently altering the map.
While Carlota Joaquina herself never wore a Spanish-American crown, her "project" achieved several long-term victories that her Spanish neighbors couldn't match
Portrait of José de San Martín made in París in 1848. José de San Martín bequeathed his iconic curved saber to Juan Manuel de Rosas in his will, written on January 23, 1844. Although San Martín was in exile in France, he sent the weapon to Rosas following his death in 1850.
San Martín chose to gift his sword the same one he used throughout the Wars of Independence as a tribute to Rosas' "firmness" in defending Argentine sovereignty against "foreign invaders" during the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata. In his will, San Martín stated that the gesture was a mark of satisfaction "as an Argentine" to see the honor of the Republic upheld against "unjust pretensions" from abroad.
After San Martín's death on August 17, 1850, his son-in-law Mariano Balcarce fulfilled the request by informing Rosas and arranging for the saber to be sent to Buenos Aires.
Also Juan Manuel de Rosas maintained a lifelong devotion to the memory of Santiago de Liniers, whom he considered an "illustrious, noble, and virtuous" hero. His connection to Liniers began during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata when Rosas was only a child.
During the first invasion, a 13-year-old Rosas served under the command of Liniers, primarily tasked with distributing ammunition to the troops defending Buenos Aires. Rosas was deeply affected by the execution of Liniers in 1810 at the hands of the May Revolutionaries."
San Martín chose to gift his sword the same one he used throughout the Wars of Independence as a tribute to Rosas' "firmness" in defending Argentine sovereignty against "foreign invaders" during the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata. In his will, San Martín stated that the gesture was a mark of satisfaction "as an Argentine" to see the honor of the Republic upheld against "unjust pretensions" from abroad.
After San Martín's death on August 17, 1850, his son-in-law Mariano Balcarce fulfilled the request by informing Rosas and arranging for the saber to be sent to Buenos Aires.
Also Juan Manuel de Rosas maintained a lifelong devotion to the memory of Santiago de Liniers, whom he considered an "illustrious, noble, and virtuous" hero. His connection to Liniers began during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata when Rosas was only a child.
During the first invasion, a 13-year-old Rosas served under the command of Liniers, primarily tasked with distributing ammunition to the troops defending Buenos Aires. Rosas was deeply affected by the execution of Liniers in 1810 at the hands of the May Revolutionaries."
The Three Carlist Wars
The 19th-century struggle between Carlism and Liberalism in Spain was far more than a simple dynastic feud; it was a brutal, multi-generational civil war over the very soul of the country.
First Carlist War (1833–1840): The deadliest, triggered when Ferdinand VII bypassed his brother Don Carlos to name his 3-year-old daughter Isabella II (Isabella I, was the "Catholica". It was a "total war" that devastated the northern countryside.
When King Ferdinand VII of Spain died in 1833, his widow, Queen Maria Cristina, became regent on behalf of their toddler daughter Queen Isabella II. The country splintered into two factions known as the Cristinos or Isabelinos (Liberalism) and the Carlists (Tradicionalist).
Second Carlist War (1846–1849): Primarily a rural uprising in Catalonia known as the Guerra dels Matiners (War of the Early Risers), sparked by the failure of a planned marriage between the Carlist pretender and Queen Isabella II.
Third Carlist War (1872–1876): A reaction against the 1868 revolution and the choice of a foreign king (Amadeo I). Its defeat led to the final abolition of many traditional Basque privileges (fueros).
The 19th-century struggle between Carlism and Liberalism in Spain was far more than a simple dynastic feud; it was a brutal, multi-generational civil war over the very soul of the country.
First Carlist War (1833–1840): The deadliest, triggered when Ferdinand VII bypassed his brother Don Carlos to name his 3-year-old daughter Isabella II (Isabella I, was the "Catholica". It was a "total war" that devastated the northern countryside.
When King Ferdinand VII of Spain died in 1833, his widow, Queen Maria Cristina, became regent on behalf of their toddler daughter Queen Isabella II. The country splintered into two factions known as the Cristinos or Isabelinos (Liberalism) and the Carlists (Tradicionalist).
Second Carlist War (1846–1849): Primarily a rural uprising in Catalonia known as the Guerra dels Matiners (War of the Early Risers), sparked by the failure of a planned marriage between the Carlist pretender and Queen Isabella II.
Third Carlist War (1872–1876): A reaction against the 1868 revolution and the choice of a foreign king (Amadeo I). Its defeat led to the final abolition of many traditional Basque privileges (fueros).
While Juan Manuel de Rosas was not a "Carlist" in the literal sense (as he was an Argentine leader, not a participant in the Spanish dynastic wars), he was a staunch Traditionalist whose ideology, style of government, and support base were remarkably similar to the Carlist movement in Spain.
1. Ideological Parallels
Rosas and the Carlists shared the same "Old World" values that rejected the Enlightenment Liberalism of figures like Rivadavia:
"Religion or Death": Like the Carlists (whose motto was "God, Country, and King"), Rosas placed the Catholic Church at the center of social order. He restored the Jesuits and used religious symbolism to unify the state.
Anti-Liberalism: Rosas despised the "Europeanizing" liberals of Buenos Aires (the Unitarians), much as the Carlists despised the "Isabelline" liberals in Madrid.
Traditional Law: Both favored local, organic traditions over abstract, written constitutions.
2. The "Cross of Burgundy" and the Red Color
Symbolism: Rosas mandated the use of the Federal Red (Rojo Punzó). While the Carlists were famous for their Red Berets, Rosas’s followers (the Mazorca and federalists) were identified by their red ribbons and waistcoats.
The Flag: During the Anglo-French blockade, Rosas’s forces often used flags that incorporated the Saltire or features reminiscent of the old Spanish military traditions, which Carlists also claimed as their own.
3. The Base of Support: The Indigenous" and Gauchos
This is where the connection is strongest.
The People of the Soil: Carlism was a movement of the rural peasantry (especially in the Basque Country and Navarre).
Rosas’s Base: Rosas’s power came from the Gauchos, the Afro-Argentines, and the Indigenous tribes (whom he called "his children"). These groups preferred the paternalistic, "protective" authority of a strong leader like Rosas over the cold, pro-market laws of the Liberals.
1. Ideological Parallels
Rosas and the Carlists shared the same "Old World" values that rejected the Enlightenment Liberalism of figures like Rivadavia:
"Religion or Death": Like the Carlists (whose motto was "God, Country, and King"), Rosas placed the Catholic Church at the center of social order. He restored the Jesuits and used religious symbolism to unify the state.
Anti-Liberalism: Rosas despised the "Europeanizing" liberals of Buenos Aires (the Unitarians), much as the Carlists despised the "Isabelline" liberals in Madrid.
Traditional Law: Both favored local, organic traditions over abstract, written constitutions.
2. The "Cross of Burgundy" and the Red Color
Symbolism: Rosas mandated the use of the Federal Red (Rojo Punzó). While the Carlists were famous for their Red Berets, Rosas’s followers (the Mazorca and federalists) were identified by their red ribbons and waistcoats.
The Flag: During the Anglo-French blockade, Rosas’s forces often used flags that incorporated the Saltire or features reminiscent of the old Spanish military traditions, which Carlists also claimed as their own.
3. The Base of Support: The Indigenous" and Gauchos
This is where the connection is strongest.
The People of the Soil: Carlism was a movement of the rural peasantry (especially in the Basque Country and Navarre).
Rosas’s Base: Rosas’s power came from the Gauchos, the Afro-Argentines, and the Indigenous tribes (whom he called "his children"). These groups preferred the paternalistic, "protective" authority of a strong leader like Rosas over the cold, pro-market laws of the Liberals.
The image of Indigenous Americans fighting under the Cross of Burgundy is one of the most powerful "lost" images of history. It represents the Royalist resistance millions of people who believed the Spanish King was their greatest protector against the rising local elites.
The Flag: They fought under the Cross of Burgundy (Aspa de Borgoña), the jagged red saltire on a white field. To them, this was not just a foreign flag; it was the symbol of the Monarquía Católica, which had legally recognized their communal lands (Resguardos) and the authority of their local leaders (Curacas).
The Iquicha Rebellion (Peru): In 1825, after the official surrender of the Spanish, the indigenous people of Iquicha (Huanta) launched a massive counter-revolution to restore the Spanish King. Their leader, Antonio Huachaca, famously stated that the Republic was an "enemy of the people" and that they preferred the "protection of the Great King."
Today groups in Latin America are actively raising the Cross of Burgundy today, though the meaning behind it has shifted toward modern political and cultural debates.
Photo and information from Reddit, by clicking on the image on the left.
The Flag: They fought under the Cross of Burgundy (Aspa de Borgoña), the jagged red saltire on a white field. To them, this was not just a foreign flag; it was the symbol of the Monarquía Católica, which had legally recognized their communal lands (Resguardos) and the authority of their local leaders (Curacas).
The Iquicha Rebellion (Peru): In 1825, after the official surrender of the Spanish, the indigenous people of Iquicha (Huanta) launched a massive counter-revolution to restore the Spanish King. Their leader, Antonio Huachaca, famously stated that the Republic was an "enemy of the people" and that they preferred the "protection of the Great King."
Today groups in Latin America are actively raising the Cross of Burgundy today, though the meaning behind it has shifted toward modern political and cultural debates.
Photo and information from Reddit, by clicking on the image on the left.
The Cross of Burgundy (French: Croix de Bourgogne; Spanish: Cruz de Borgoña/Aspa de Borgoña; form of the Cross of Saint Andrew, the patron saint of Burgundy, and a historical banner and battle flag used by holders of the title of Duke of Burgundy and their subjects. It was first used in the 15th century by the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled a large part of nowadays eastern France and the Low Countries as an effectively independent state.At the extinction of the Valois ducal line in 1477, the Burgundian Low Countries were inherited by the Habsburgs, who retained the title of Dukes of Burgundy and adopted the flag as one of the many symbols of their dynasty.
In 1496, Joanna I of Castile, daughter of the Catholic Monarchs, married Philip of Habsburg, known as "El Hermoso", heir to the Duchy of Burgundy. This union not only united two of the most powerful families in Europe, but also brought with it their symbols. With the death of Isabella the Catholic and a series of dynastic events, Philip became king consort of Castile in 1506. With it, his personal emblem was officially integrated into the symbology of the crown. The Cross of Burgundy had crossed the Pyrenees to stay, ushering in a new era not only for Spain, but for the symbol itself, which was destined to travel much further.
After the Burgundian Habsburgs ascended to the throne of Spain in 1506, their officials introduced this ensign in the Spanish Empire throughout the Castilian and Aragonese territories in Europe and in the Americas. As a reflection of the historical reach of the Burgundian, Habsburg, and Spanish empires and territories, the emblem can be found in several countries in Europe and in the Americas, used on regimental colours, badges, shoulder patches, and company guidons.
More recent usage of the Cross of Burgundy include its use by the Carlists; a faction of hyper-traditional monarchists who were opposed to the ascension of Isabella II in 1833 due to her being a woman. Carlists and their Requeté militias would be a major group among the Spanish Nationalists under the rule of Francisco Franco. After the fall of Franco Carlism shifted to a left-winged nationalist group.
In 1496, Joanna I of Castile, daughter of the Catholic Monarchs, married Philip of Habsburg, known as "El Hermoso", heir to the Duchy of Burgundy. This union not only united two of the most powerful families in Europe, but also brought with it their symbols. With the death of Isabella the Catholic and a series of dynastic events, Philip became king consort of Castile in 1506. With it, his personal emblem was officially integrated into the symbology of the crown. The Cross of Burgundy had crossed the Pyrenees to stay, ushering in a new era not only for Spain, but for the symbol itself, which was destined to travel much further.
After the Burgundian Habsburgs ascended to the throne of Spain in 1506, their officials introduced this ensign in the Spanish Empire throughout the Castilian and Aragonese territories in Europe and in the Americas. As a reflection of the historical reach of the Burgundian, Habsburg, and Spanish empires and territories, the emblem can be found in several countries in Europe and in the Americas, used on regimental colours, badges, shoulder patches, and company guidons.
More recent usage of the Cross of Burgundy include its use by the Carlists; a faction of hyper-traditional monarchists who were opposed to the ascension of Isabella II in 1833 due to her being a woman. Carlists and their Requeté militias would be a major group among the Spanish Nationalists under the rule of Francisco Franco. After the fall of Franco Carlism shifted to a left-winged nationalist group.
