Notable Figures
Left: Brigadier Gral Tomas de Iriarte. Center. Cnel Martiniano Chilavert. Right: Gral Domingo Viejobueno.
Brigadier General Tomas de Iriarte was an officer during the war of independence who passed from the Spanish band to the Argentine side. He fought against Brazil and in successive civil wars. Today the Regimiento de Artillería 1 bears his name in remembrance.
Martiniano Chilaver was an artillery hero. In 1852 during the Battle of Monte Caseros, he was in charge of the field artillery among the allied Brazilians, Uruguayans and Argentines. He and his men were the last on the battlefield and continued to resist, changing positions to cover the retreating troops from the Confederacion Argentina. When the defeat was complete, he was left alone with his battery returning fire until the last bullet. He was taken prisoner and executed.
In 1879 General Domigo Viejobueno was named president of the commission that would study the modifications and modernizations that the army should impose. He arranged a deal with Krupp and Maxim smelting.for modernized field battery. Viejobueno constructed the first national bronze striped cannons with a Krupp system who fabrication was designed by him.
Brigadier General Tomas de Iriarte was an officer during the war of independence who passed from the Spanish band to the Argentine side. He fought against Brazil and in successive civil wars. Today the Regimiento de Artillería 1 bears his name in remembrance.
Martiniano Chilaver was an artillery hero. In 1852 during the Battle of Monte Caseros, he was in charge of the field artillery among the allied Brazilians, Uruguayans and Argentines. He and his men were the last on the battlefield and continued to resist, changing positions to cover the retreating troops from the Confederacion Argentina. When the defeat was complete, he was left alone with his battery returning fire until the last bullet. He was taken prisoner and executed.
In 1879 General Domigo Viejobueno was named president of the commission that would study the modifications and modernizations that the army should impose. He arranged a deal with Krupp and Maxim smelting.for modernized field battery. Viejobueno constructed the first national bronze striped cannons with a Krupp system who fabrication was designed by him.
The Real Cuerpo de Artillería (Royal Corps of Artillery)
This was the professional Spanish backbone. They managed the heavy siege guns and fixed coastal batteries (like those at the Fortaleza or the Retiro) as well as the standard 8nd and 12-pounder field guns.
The Real Cuerpo de Artillería (Royal Corps of Artillery) was born from a major 18th-century reform of the Spanish military aimed at professionalizing and standardizing the branch across the entire empire. While a standing force was first codified in 1710 by King Philip V, this Real Cuerpo de Artilleria de Buenos Aires, was shaped by the Ordinance of 1762, which centralized artillery into a single unified body with its own specific regulations and elite training.
(1710-1762); King Philip V consolidated various independent artillery companies into the Royal Artillery Regiment to ensure they all followed the same tactical and technical standards. Around 1766, King Charles III invited French experts like Jean Maritz II to overhaul Spanish foundries in Seville and Barcelona. This introduced the Gribeauval system, which created lighter, more standardized cannons that were easier to transport and fire quickly.
Formation wasn't just about guns, but knowledge. Officers were trained at the Royal Artillery College in Segovia (founded in 1764), making them some of the most educated and specialized men in the Spanish military.
Before the 1760s, the artillery in Buenos Aires was often neglected or manned by general infantry. As Spain tightened its grip on the Atlantic, professional cadres from the Royal Corps were sent from Spain to establish a permanent presence in Buenos Aires.
When the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was created in 1776, the Royal Corps of Artillery was formally structured as a resident garrison unit to defend the growing Atlantic port against British and Portuguese threats.
By the late 1700s, the need for mobility led to the creation of the mounted elements, though the core "Royal Corps" remained focused on the massive bronze and iron guns of the Fortress of Buenos Aires and the Retiro.
The Real Cuerpo de Artillería (Royal Corps of Artillery) was born from a major 18th-century reform of the Spanish military aimed at professionalizing and standardizing the branch across the entire empire. While a standing force was first codified in 1710 by King Philip V, this Real Cuerpo de Artilleria de Buenos Aires, was shaped by the Ordinance of 1762, which centralized artillery into a single unified body with its own specific regulations and elite training.
(1710-1762); King Philip V consolidated various independent artillery companies into the Royal Artillery Regiment to ensure they all followed the same tactical and technical standards. Around 1766, King Charles III invited French experts like Jean Maritz II to overhaul Spanish foundries in Seville and Barcelona. This introduced the Gribeauval system, which created lighter, more standardized cannons that were easier to transport and fire quickly.
Formation wasn't just about guns, but knowledge. Officers were trained at the Royal Artillery College in Segovia (founded in 1764), making them some of the most educated and specialized men in the Spanish military.
Before the 1760s, the artillery in Buenos Aires was often neglected or manned by general infantry. As Spain tightened its grip on the Atlantic, professional cadres from the Royal Corps were sent from Spain to establish a permanent presence in Buenos Aires.
When the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was created in 1776, the Royal Corps of Artillery was formally structured as a resident garrison unit to defend the growing Atlantic port against British and Portuguese threats.
By the late 1700s, the need for mobility led to the creation of the mounted elements, though the core "Royal Corps" remained focused on the massive bronze and iron guns of the Fortress of Buenos Aires and the Retiro.
In 1802, the Real Cuerpo de Artillería (Royal Artillery Corps) in Buenos Aires followed the general Spanish military regulations, which standardized the appearance of the corps across the empire. The uniform was primarily dark blue with distinctive red facings.
The jacket is blue with black lapels. On the lapels were yellow buttonholes lace as decoration, (Gold for officers).
During the British Invasions (1806–1807), many of the newly formed volunteer urban militias in Buenos Aires (who lacked official shakos) wore stiffened black felt top hats. These were often adorned with a plume or cockade to give them a military appearance.
The 1802 and 1805 regulations were the most likely "on paper" standard, but supply delays and local circumstances created a hybrid appearance.
Some sources say that in 1802 the royal artillery in Buenos Aires used Liz flower on the collar, others grenades. The truth is that the situation in Spain became chaotic at this time.
The 1805 regulation was rarely fully implemented in the overseas colonies by the time of the 1806-1807 invasions due the naval blockade and internal turmoil in Spain after the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) made shipping new regulation uniforms nearly impossible.
The jacket is blue with black lapels. On the lapels were yellow buttonholes lace as decoration, (Gold for officers).
During the British Invasions (1806–1807), many of the newly formed volunteer urban militias in Buenos Aires (who lacked official shakos) wore stiffened black felt top hats. These were often adorned with a plume or cockade to give them a military appearance.
The 1802 and 1805 regulations were the most likely "on paper" standard, but supply delays and local circumstances created a hybrid appearance.
Some sources say that in 1802 the royal artillery in Buenos Aires used Liz flower on the collar, others grenades. The truth is that the situation in Spain became chaotic at this time.
The 1805 regulation was rarely fully implemented in the overseas colonies by the time of the 1806-1807 invasions due the naval blockade and internal turmoil in Spain after the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) made shipping new regulation uniforms nearly impossible.
1806 - 1807 British Invasion of the Rio de la Plata - Maitland Plan 1800
The Real Cuerpo de Artillería (Royal Artillery Corps) suffered a nearly identical fate to the Fixed Battalion during the 1806 invasion, though their specialized role led to a specific type of collapse.
When General Beresford landed at Quilmes, the regular artillery was the city's primary firepower. However, they were crippled by the same leadership vacuum.
As Viceroy Sobremonte fled toward Córdoba with the treasury, the regular garrison—including the artillerymen—was left without a coherent defense plan.The British captured the Real Fortaleza de Don Juan Baltasar de Austria (the Citadel) with virtually no resistance. This meant the heavy guns of the Real Cuerpo were taken intact by the British without having fired a significant shot in the city's defense.
The professional gunners of the Real Cuerpo were taken prisoner alongside the Fixed Battalion. Like their infantry counterparts, many were eventually transported to England.
The 1807 Siege and Montevideo
The artillery's most tragic "shared fate" occurred during the Siege of Montevideo in 1807. A significant detachment of the Real Cuerpo from Buenos Aires was sent to Montevideo to man the walls against the second British expedition.
When the British stormed the city on February 3, 1807, the artillerymen fought to the end at their batteries. Most were either killed in the breach or captured and subsequently shipped to England.
The Fixed Battalion, and the artillery survivors captured in 1806 and 1807 were released in 1808 after the Spanish uprising against Napoleon.These seasoned gunners landed in A Coruña and were integrated into the Spanish resistance. While the infantry formed the Gallego Rio de la Plata Battalion, the artillerymen were often absorbed into Spanish Peninsular artillery units or served as technical advisors for the new "American" units formed in Spain to fight the French.
By 1810, the "Original" Real Cuerpo de Artillería of Buenos Aires had essentially vanished, replaced on the ground by the Cuerpo de Artillería de la Unión and other locally raised militia batteries that would eventually form the backbone of the revolutionary armies.
When General Beresford landed at Quilmes, the regular artillery was the city's primary firepower. However, they were crippled by the same leadership vacuum.
As Viceroy Sobremonte fled toward Córdoba with the treasury, the regular garrison—including the artillerymen—was left without a coherent defense plan.The British captured the Real Fortaleza de Don Juan Baltasar de Austria (the Citadel) with virtually no resistance. This meant the heavy guns of the Real Cuerpo were taken intact by the British without having fired a significant shot in the city's defense.
The professional gunners of the Real Cuerpo were taken prisoner alongside the Fixed Battalion. Like their infantry counterparts, many were eventually transported to England.
The 1807 Siege and Montevideo
The artillery's most tragic "shared fate" occurred during the Siege of Montevideo in 1807. A significant detachment of the Real Cuerpo from Buenos Aires was sent to Montevideo to man the walls against the second British expedition.
When the British stormed the city on February 3, 1807, the artillerymen fought to the end at their batteries. Most were either killed in the breach or captured and subsequently shipped to England.
The Fixed Battalion, and the artillery survivors captured in 1806 and 1807 were released in 1808 after the Spanish uprising against Napoleon.These seasoned gunners landed in A Coruña and were integrated into the Spanish resistance. While the infantry formed the Gallego Rio de la Plata Battalion, the artillerymen were often absorbed into Spanish Peninsular artillery units or served as technical advisors for the new "American" units formed in Spain to fight the French.
By 1810, the "Original" Real Cuerpo de Artillería of Buenos Aires had essentially vanished, replaced on the ground by the Cuerpo de Artillería de la Unión and other locally raised militia batteries that would eventually form the backbone of the revolutionary armies.
Tren de Artilleria or Artilleria Volante (Horse Artillery). Image: "Entry into the city of Quito of the royal troops sent by the Viceroy of Peru in 1809. Painting attributed to Francisco Javier Cortés". This is how the Spanish royal army dressed in America around 1809. the same regulation was for the Río de la Plata, since it was the same army. Note the sleeved caps, called in England forage caps or in France Bonnet de Police described in the 1805 Spanish regulations for artillerymen.
In 1810, the Royal Body of Artillery (Spanish: Real Cuerpo de Artillería) was the colonial Spanish unit responsible for artillery in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Following the May Revolution in Buenos Aires, this unit was disbanded by the new patriot government (the Primera Junta) on May 29, 1810.
The Primera Junta dissolved the Royal Body of Artillery to remove Spanish crown influence from the military. On the same day, May 29, 1810, the Regiment of Flying Artillery (Regimiento de Artillería Volante) was established to replace the Royal Body. This new unit was largely composed of former members of the disbanded royalist corps.
Just before the revolution, the Royal Artillery presence in Buenos Aires was small, with only about 40 troops guarding the fort, while the remainder were stationed in the Banda Oriental (modern-day Uruguay).
The new patriot artillery units were integrated into the emerging Argentine Army, which sought to secure independence from Spain.
The Primera Junta dissolved the Royal Body of Artillery to remove Spanish crown influence from the military. On the same day, May 29, 1810, the Regiment of Flying Artillery (Regimiento de Artillería Volante) was established to replace the Royal Body. This new unit was largely composed of former members of the disbanded royalist corps.
Just before the revolution, the Royal Artillery presence in Buenos Aires was small, with only about 40 troops guarding the fort, while the remainder were stationed in the Banda Oriental (modern-day Uruguay).
The new patriot artillery units were integrated into the emerging Argentine Army, which sought to secure independence from Spain.
1806. The Regiment de Artilleria Volante, Horse Artillery
The Regimiento de Artillería Volante (also known as the Batallón de Artillería Volante) was formed as a direct response to the vulnerability of Buenos Aires discovered during the first British invasion of 1806. Its creation was a key part of Santiago de Liniers' broader plan to militarize the local population after the Reconquista.
The regiment was officially established through a proclamation issued by Liniers on September 9, 1806, following the expulsion of the British.
Unlike the Patricios (who were middle-class "sons of the soil") or the Arribeños (from the interior), the Flying Artillery drew its recruits largely from the criollo working class and poorer residents of Buenos Aires. The unit was structured into seven companies, initially comprising approximately 600 to 700 men.
Liniers appointed Gerardo Esteve y Llach as its first commander. The officers were often chosen for their technical aptitude or prior experience in the merchant navy or militia.
The "Flying" designation was not just a title; the unit was trained specifically to operate light field pieces (4-pounders and 6-pounders) that could be limbered and unlimbered rapidly. Every artilleryman was expected to be a capable rider, as the entire battery including the cannoneers moved on horseback to keep pace with cavalry.
During the Second British Invasion in 1807, the regiment operated as the mobile strike force of the defense. While the Patriotas de la Unión manned the heavy stationary batteries at street corners, the Artillería Volante was deployed to the city's outskirts to intercept British columns and provide support where the lines were most pressured.
Key Figures and Legacy:
Notable Officers: Figures like Bernabé de San Martín (who later took command) and Felipe Pereyra de Lucena (one of the first martyrs of Argentine independence) served in this unit.
After the May Revolution of 1810, the "Volantes" like the Voluntarios Artilleros, were eventually merged with the Real Cuerpo de Artillería on September 1, 1810, to form the backbone of the new revolutionary Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria.
The regiment was officially established through a proclamation issued by Liniers on September 9, 1806, following the expulsion of the British.
Unlike the Patricios (who were middle-class "sons of the soil") or the Arribeños (from the interior), the Flying Artillery drew its recruits largely from the criollo working class and poorer residents of Buenos Aires. The unit was structured into seven companies, initially comprising approximately 600 to 700 men.
Liniers appointed Gerardo Esteve y Llach as its first commander. The officers were often chosen for their technical aptitude or prior experience in the merchant navy or militia.
The "Flying" designation was not just a title; the unit was trained specifically to operate light field pieces (4-pounders and 6-pounders) that could be limbered and unlimbered rapidly. Every artilleryman was expected to be a capable rider, as the entire battery including the cannoneers moved on horseback to keep pace with cavalry.
During the Second British Invasion in 1807, the regiment operated as the mobile strike force of the defense. While the Patriotas de la Unión manned the heavy stationary batteries at street corners, the Artillería Volante was deployed to the city's outskirts to intercept British columns and provide support where the lines were most pressured.
Key Figures and Legacy:
Notable Officers: Figures like Bernabé de San Martín (who later took command) and Felipe Pereyra de Lucena (one of the first martyrs of Argentine independence) served in this unit.
After the May Revolution of 1810, the "Volantes" like the Voluntarios Artilleros, were eventually merged with the Real Cuerpo de Artillería on September 1, 1810, to form the backbone of the new revolutionary Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria.
1807 - 1810/12. Voluntarios de la Union - Artilleria Volante - Artilleria de la Patria
The Voluntarios Patriotas de la Unión (also known as the Cuerpo de Voluntarios Artilleros de la "Unión") was a militia unit formed in Buenos Aires specifically to defend the city against the British Invasions of the River Plate in 1806–1807. Unlike other regiments organized by ethnicity (such as the Cuerpo de Gallegos or Patricios), this unit was funded and equipped directly by the local municipal government, the Cabildo of Buenos Aires.
While the Patriotas de la Unión was a crucial milestone, the official birth of the Argentine Artillery is traditionally linked to the Royal Corps of Artillery (established in 1766) and specifically the Flying Artillery Battalion (Volantes) formed in 1806, was the first "national" attempt at a highly mobile force. They were designed to move quickly with the cavalry to provide fire support wherever the line was weakest.
The Regimiento de Artillería Volante (created by Santiago de Liniers in 1806) and the Patriotas de la Unión mounted batteries adopted the "Hussar" style specifically because it was the height of military fashion for elite light troops at the time.
The Tarleton type helmet, was the most distinctive feature. This leather helmet, featuring a large fur crest, was a hallmark of light dragoons and horse artillery during the Napoleonic era. In Buenos Aires, it provided a visual link to the most modern European military trends of the time. By around 1812, the British-style Tarleton was globally replaced by the French-influenced Shako.
The Tarleton helmet has largely vanished* from Argentina's modern collective memory. Today, when people think of the independence era, they almost exclusively visualize the Shako (the tall, cylindrical hat worn by San Martín’s Grenadiers).
*There is a direct evolutionary line from the high-prestige military headgear of the 18th and 19th centuries to the modern equestrian and polo helmets we see today. The Tarleton helmet represents a critical "missing link" in how functional protective gear for horsemen developed.
Formed after the initial 1806 British occupation to bolster the city's defenses for the expected second attack.
It was organized and paid for by the Cabildo, reflecting the city's growing autonomy in managing its own military affairs without direct Spanish assistance.
During the Second British Invasion (1807), the unit served as artillery support. They were part of the 8,000+ local militia members who engaged in fierce urban combat against Lieutenant General John Whitelocke’s forces.
While many units were divided by place of birth, the "Unión" name signified a broader call to the local population to unite against the common British threat.
The British returned in early 1807 with a massive force, first capturing Montevideo before moving on Buenos Aires in July. The defense was characterized by unconventional tactics, including firing from rooftops and digging trenches in the city streets.
On July 5, 1807, the British suffered heavy casualties (nearly half their force killed or wounded) and were forced to sign an armistice to withdraw from the entire Rio de la Plata region.
The success of volunteer units like the Patriotas de la Unión fostered a sense of self-determination, directly contributing to the May Revolution of 1810 and Argentina's eventual independence.
While the Patriotas de la Unión was a crucial milestone, the official birth of the Argentine Artillery is traditionally linked to the Royal Corps of Artillery (established in 1766) and specifically the Flying Artillery Battalion (Volantes) formed in 1806, was the first "national" attempt at a highly mobile force. They were designed to move quickly with the cavalry to provide fire support wherever the line was weakest.
The Regimiento de Artillería Volante (created by Santiago de Liniers in 1806) and the Patriotas de la Unión mounted batteries adopted the "Hussar" style specifically because it was the height of military fashion for elite light troops at the time.
The Tarleton type helmet, was the most distinctive feature. This leather helmet, featuring a large fur crest, was a hallmark of light dragoons and horse artillery during the Napoleonic era. In Buenos Aires, it provided a visual link to the most modern European military trends of the time. By around 1812, the British-style Tarleton was globally replaced by the French-influenced Shako.
The Tarleton helmet has largely vanished* from Argentina's modern collective memory. Today, when people think of the independence era, they almost exclusively visualize the Shako (the tall, cylindrical hat worn by San Martín’s Grenadiers).
*There is a direct evolutionary line from the high-prestige military headgear of the 18th and 19th centuries to the modern equestrian and polo helmets we see today. The Tarleton helmet represents a critical "missing link" in how functional protective gear for horsemen developed.
Formed after the initial 1806 British occupation to bolster the city's defenses for the expected second attack.
It was organized and paid for by the Cabildo, reflecting the city's growing autonomy in managing its own military affairs without direct Spanish assistance.
During the Second British Invasion (1807), the unit served as artillery support. They were part of the 8,000+ local militia members who engaged in fierce urban combat against Lieutenant General John Whitelocke’s forces.
While many units were divided by place of birth, the "Unión" name signified a broader call to the local population to unite against the common British threat.
The British returned in early 1807 with a massive force, first capturing Montevideo before moving on Buenos Aires in July. The defense was characterized by unconventional tactics, including firing from rooftops and digging trenches in the city streets.
On July 5, 1807, the British suffered heavy casualties (nearly half their force killed or wounded) and were forced to sign an armistice to withdraw from the entire Rio de la Plata region.
The success of volunteer units like the Patriotas de la Unión fostered a sense of self-determination, directly contributing to the May Revolution of 1810 and Argentina's eventual independence.
This image is a uniform plate by the artist Justo Doldán. Doldán is well-known for his detailed watercolor reconstructions of the militias that defended Buenos Aires during the British Invasions of 1806 and 1807.
The red and white sash worn by the officers and troops of the Voluntarios Patriotas de la Unión carries deep symbolic meaning specific to that historical moment:
The Symbolism of "Unión"
In 1807, the "Union" referred to the union between Spaniards (Peninsulares) and Criollos (those born in the Americas). Unlike other regiments that were organized strictly by place of origin (like the Patricios for locals or the Gallegos for those from Galicia), this unit was specifically created to show that both groups were united in the defense of Buenos Aires against the British.
The red and white colors were chosen to represent this alliance. Red was the traditional color of the Spanish monarchy and military, while white was often associated with the local city of Buenos Aires and its Cabildo (city council), which funded and organized the unit.Wearing these colors together on a single sash was a powerful visual message. It signaled that, despite growing internal tensions, the inhabitants of the Viceroyalty stood as one against a foreign invader.
This "Union" proved to be short-lived, as the confidence gained by the Criollo militias during these battles eventually led them to break away from Spain during the May Revolution of 1810.
The red and white sash worn by the officers and troops of the Voluntarios Patriotas de la Unión carries deep symbolic meaning specific to that historical moment:
The Symbolism of "Unión"
In 1807, the "Union" referred to the union between Spaniards (Peninsulares) and Criollos (those born in the Americas). Unlike other regiments that were organized strictly by place of origin (like the Patricios for locals or the Gallegos for those from Galicia), this unit was specifically created to show that both groups were united in the defense of Buenos Aires against the British.
The red and white colors were chosen to represent this alliance. Red was the traditional color of the Spanish monarchy and military, while white was often associated with the local city of Buenos Aires and its Cabildo (city council), which funded and organized the unit.Wearing these colors together on a single sash was a powerful visual message. It signaled that, despite growing internal tensions, the inhabitants of the Viceroyalty stood as one against a foreign invader.
This "Union" proved to be short-lived, as the confidence gained by the Criollo militias during these battles eventually led them to break away from Spain during the May Revolution of 1810.
1806-1807: The Horse Artillery - volante, Voluntarios de la Unión (also known as the Voluntarios Patriotas de la Unión) was formed as a militia unit during the British Invasions.
September 11, 1809: After the failed mutiny of Martín de Álzaga, the Viceroy (liniers) reorganized the local militias. The Voluntarios de la Unión was renamed the Cuerpo de Artillería Volante (Flying Artillery Corps) and was officially attached to the Real Cuerpo de Artillería.
May 29, 1810: Four days after the creation of the Primera Junta, the new patriot government issued a decree to organize its army. This led to the dissolution of the Real Cuerpo de Artillería.
September 1, 1810: The seven companies of the Artillería Volante were formally merged into the remaining artillery structure, eventually forming the Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria (Artillery Regiment of the Nation). This new unit became the primary artillery force for the patriot cause during the Argentine War of Independence.
September 11, 1809: After the failed mutiny of Martín de Álzaga, the Viceroy (liniers) reorganized the local militias. The Voluntarios de la Unión was renamed the Cuerpo de Artillería Volante (Flying Artillery Corps) and was officially attached to the Real Cuerpo de Artillería.
May 29, 1810: Four days after the creation of the Primera Junta, the new patriot government issued a decree to organize its army. This led to the dissolution of the Real Cuerpo de Artillería.
September 1, 1810: The seven companies of the Artillería Volante were formally merged into the remaining artillery structure, eventually forming the Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria (Artillery Regiment of the Nation). This new unit became the primary artillery force for the patriot cause during the Argentine War of Independence.
The Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria
The Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria was the unified revolutionary force that brought together the disparate colonial and militia units into a single national organization. The absorption happened through a series of reorganizations between 1809 and 1810:
Voluntarios de la Unión: On September 11, 1809, this unit was renamed the Cuerpo de Artillería Volante (essentially becoming the militia's mobile horse artillery arm).
On September 1, 1810, the seven companies of the Batallón de Artillería Volante (which included the former Unión volunteers) were officially incorporated into the Real Cuerpo de Artillería.
This newly expanded body became the foundation for the Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria (Regiment of Artillery of the Homeland). The new regiment was organized with the following veteran and militia components:
4 Companies from the original Real Cuerpo de Artillería (professional Spanish regulars who joined the revolution).
7 Companies from the Artillería Volante (which carried the legacy and men of the Patriotas de la Unión).
It was initially commanded by professional officers like Manuel Pinto and Bernabé de San Martín. This merger turned the diverse units of the 1807 defense each with their own uniforms and traditions into the professional "Big Guns" that supported Belgrano and San Martín in the liberation of South America.
Voluntarios de la Unión: On September 11, 1809, this unit was renamed the Cuerpo de Artillería Volante (essentially becoming the militia's mobile horse artillery arm).
On September 1, 1810, the seven companies of the Batallón de Artillería Volante (which included the former Unión volunteers) were officially incorporated into the Real Cuerpo de Artillería.
This newly expanded body became the foundation for the Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria (Regiment of Artillery of the Homeland). The new regiment was organized with the following veteran and militia components:
4 Companies from the original Real Cuerpo de Artillería (professional Spanish regulars who joined the revolution).
7 Companies from the Artillería Volante (which carried the legacy and men of the Patriotas de la Unión).
It was initially commanded by professional officers like Manuel Pinto and Bernabé de San Martín. This merger turned the diverse units of the 1807 defense each with their own uniforms and traditions into the professional "Big Guns" that supported Belgrano and San Martín in the liberation of South America.
This would be the transition of styles between the early Light Artillery based on the same uniform of the previous "Union Artillery Volunteer Corps"; And to the Flying Artillery of the Artillery of the Fatherland in 1812. in Luqui-lagleize's book (Del Morrion al Casco de Acero" - Los Cuerpos Militares en la historia Argentina. 1550 - Organizacion y Uniformes - 1950), the use of a black leather shako with a black cloth turban is mentioned in 1812. In 1810 the leather "Tarleton" was still in use and from 1812 the "Cahouk or Sahouk", in the same style as the "Mamelouk" of Napoleon's Imperial Guard.
The use of the Cahouk (or Sahouk) in Argentine military fashion is a fascinating thread that connects the revolutionary "Artillería de la Patria" to the later Rosas era (1829–1852); Music band of the Argentine Guard Battalion .
During the War of Independence (c. 1812–1815), several elite and specialized units in the Río de la Plata adopted "mameluke-type" trousers (pantalón a la mameluca or zaragüelles), which were exceptionally wide and gathered at the ankle.
The use of the Cahouk (or Sahouk) in Argentine military fashion is a fascinating thread that connects the revolutionary "Artillería de la Patria" to the later Rosas era (1829–1852); Music band of the Argentine Guard Battalion .
During the War of Independence (c. 1812–1815), several elite and specialized units in the Río de la Plata adopted "mameluke-type" trousers (pantalón a la mameluca or zaragüelles), which were exceptionally wide and gathered at the ankle.
|
Guillermo (William) Miller landed in Buenos Aires with letters of recommendation and was initially commissioned as a Captain in the Buenos Aires Artillery.
Before arriving in Buenos Aires, he served in the British Royal Artillery during the Peninsular War against Napoleon. In September 1817, Miller was commissioned as a Captain of Artillery by the government of the United Provinces and shortly after, he traveled to Chile to join General José de San Martín's Army of the Andes. During the Battle of Cancha Rayada (1818), Miller famously saved a significant portion of the patriot artillery from being captured by royalist forces after a surprise night attack. |
While he started in the artillery, he soon joined Lord Cochrane as commander of the marines in the Chilean Navy. Later in the Peruvian campaign, he rose to become a General of Brigade and a key cavalry leader.
While Miller was a highly distinguished artillery officer early on, the overall command of the artillery for the Army of the Andes during the crossing was under Lieutenant Colonel Pedro Conde (who commanded the artillery battalion) and Fray Louis Beltrán, who managed the logistics of moving the heavy guns over the mountains.
Miller eventually became a Grand Marshal of Peru, one of the highest military honors in South American history.
While Miller was a highly distinguished artillery officer early on, the overall command of the artillery for the Army of the Andes during the crossing was under Lieutenant Colonel Pedro Conde (who commanded the artillery battalion) and Fray Louis Beltrán, who managed the logistics of moving the heavy guns over the mountains.
Miller eventually became a Grand Marshal of Peru, one of the highest military honors in South American history.
Uniforms
When the Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria was created on September 1, 1810, the unification of the different corps did not result in an immediate, brand-new uniform for everyone. Instead, there was a period of visual transition where the constituent units initially retained their distinct colonial-era aesthetics:
Foot Artillery (Former Real Cuerpo)
Continued wearing the traditional dark blue long-tailed coats with red lapels, cuffs, and collars. Their headgear remained the black felt bicorne with a red Spanish cockade.
Horse Artillery (Former Volante & Unión)
Retained their specialized "Hussar" or light cavalry-style gear. This included the short jackets (dolmans) and the Tarleton-style leather helmets you mentioned, which were essential for the high-speed maneuvers of the Artillería Volante.
The "Patria" Standardization
As the unit professionalized, the Shako began replacing both the bicorne and the Tarleton helmet around 1810–1811. The new national standard moved toward a more French-influenced look:
Jacket: Dark blue with red facings (collars and cuffs) and yellow (brass) buttons.
Headgear: The transition to the black shako with a red pom-pom or plume and a brass "bomb" badge.
Trousers: Trousers largely replaced the older knee breeches and gaiters for better field service.
The "Patria" regiment essentially functioned as a "Grand Corps" that kept the elite horse artillery distinct in dress from the heavy foot batteries, even though they were administratively one unit.
Uniforms
When the Regimiento de Artillería de la Patria was created on September 1, 1810, the unification of the different corps did not result in an immediate, brand-new uniform for everyone. Instead, there was a period of visual transition where the constituent units initially retained their distinct colonial-era aesthetics:
Foot Artillery (Former Real Cuerpo)
Continued wearing the traditional dark blue long-tailed coats with red lapels, cuffs, and collars. Their headgear remained the black felt bicorne with a red Spanish cockade.
Horse Artillery (Former Volante & Unión)
Retained their specialized "Hussar" or light cavalry-style gear. This included the short jackets (dolmans) and the Tarleton-style leather helmets you mentioned, which were essential for the high-speed maneuvers of the Artillería Volante.
The "Patria" Standardization
As the unit professionalized, the Shako began replacing both the bicorne and the Tarleton helmet around 1810–1811. The new national standard moved toward a more French-influenced look:
Jacket: Dark blue with red facings (collars and cuffs) and yellow (brass) buttons.
Headgear: The transition to the black shako with a red pom-pom or plume and a brass "bomb" badge.
Trousers: Trousers largely replaced the older knee breeches and gaiters for better field service.
The "Patria" regiment essentially functioned as a "Grand Corps" that kept the elite horse artillery distinct in dress from the heavy foot batteries, even though they were administratively one unit.
Short-Barreled Artillery
18th and 19th ancient mortars is a likely made of bronze or iron, located in Buenos Aires. The trunnions are the two large, cylindrical metal pieces that stick out from the sides of the barrel. It is the circular protrusion on the side of the barrel, resting directly on the green metal carriage.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1938.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1938.
The Mortero Monasterio was a heavy bronze mortar cast in Buenos Aires at the beginning of 1813. It was the third artillery piece produced by the city's new cannon factory and was named in honor of its director, the Spanish-born engineer and sculptor Ángel Augusto de Monasterio.
It was specifically designed for the Second Siege of Montevideo to fire explosive bombs into the Spanish royalist stronghold.
Monasterio established the factory in May 1812 in the decommissioned church of the Residencia in San Telmo.
He worked alongside the poet Esteban de Luca, who served as his assistant and later led the national rifle factory.
Before the "Monasterio," the factory produced two other famous mortars in 1812 named Túpac Amaru and Mangoré.
The mortar was a 12.5-inch bronze piece with a conical chamber (Gomer style), based on earlier 18th-century Spanish designs.
Combat History
It replaced earlier mortars that had exploded ("reventado") due to heavy use during the siege of Montevideo. Records from October 1813 indicate that these mortars successfully launched over 300 bombs into the city, causing significant damage to the royalist forces.
Today, the original Mortero Monasterio is preserved as a historical artifact at the National Historical Museum (Museo Histórico Nacional) in Parque Lezama, Buenos Aires.
It was specifically designed for the Second Siege of Montevideo to fire explosive bombs into the Spanish royalist stronghold.
Monasterio established the factory in May 1812 in the decommissioned church of the Residencia in San Telmo.
He worked alongside the poet Esteban de Luca, who served as his assistant and later led the national rifle factory.
Before the "Monasterio," the factory produced two other famous mortars in 1812 named Túpac Amaru and Mangoré.
The mortar was a 12.5-inch bronze piece with a conical chamber (Gomer style), based on earlier 18th-century Spanish designs.
Combat History
It replaced earlier mortars that had exploded ("reventado") due to heavy use during the siege of Montevideo. Records from October 1813 indicate that these mortars successfully launched over 300 bombs into the city, causing significant damage to the royalist forces.
Today, the original Mortero Monasterio is preserved as a historical artifact at the National Historical Museum (Museo Histórico Nacional) in Parque Lezama, Buenos Aires.
This painting, titled La fundición de los primeros morteros ("The Casting of the First Mortars"), depicts Ángel Monasterio supervising the production of heavy artillery in Buenos Aires during the War of Independence.
The paint, is currently part of the collection of the Museo Histórico Nacional (National Historical Museum) in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
While the style might remind you of the meticulous detail found in works by Mariano Fortuny (especially his Orientalist scenes or historical "dress coat" paintings), the artist is actually Augusto Ballerini (1857–1902).
It captures the improvised cannon factory set up in 1812 within the unfinished naves of the Residencia church in San Telmo.
The man in the blue uniform holding the plans is Ángel Monasterio, the Spanish engineer who defected to the patriot cause to build Argentina's first military industry.
To the right, you can see the distinctive short, wide barrels of the bronze mortars, including the ones named Túpac Amaru, Mangoré, and the Monasterio itself.
Ballerini, an Argentine painter, was known for these "historical realism" works that aimed to document the foundational moments of the nation with great technical accuracy.
The paint, is currently part of the collection of the Museo Histórico Nacional (National Historical Museum) in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
While the style might remind you of the meticulous detail found in works by Mariano Fortuny (especially his Orientalist scenes or historical "dress coat" paintings), the artist is actually Augusto Ballerini (1857–1902).
It captures the improvised cannon factory set up in 1812 within the unfinished naves of the Residencia church in San Telmo.
The man in the blue uniform holding the plans is Ángel Monasterio, the Spanish engineer who defected to the patriot cause to build Argentina's first military industry.
To the right, you can see the distinctive short, wide barrels of the bronze mortars, including the ones named Túpac Amaru, Mangoré, and the Monasterio itself.
Ballerini, an Argentine painter, was known for these "historical realism" works that aimed to document the foundational moments of the nation with great technical accuracy.
Muzzle-Loading Artillery
1826 a 8" Cannon; 1st Light Artillery Regiment by Enrique Freccia.
With respect to the early XIX Century, we can find old bronze cannons from the colonial, era or the independence era, some of which we see in museums or paintings, probably 2", 4" 6 ", 8", 12" and 18" inches calibers, (12" Field Gun, 18 Fortress Gun and 24" Siege ?), 6" "Grivehowitzers . We will try to add images and simple, basic details of these antique pieces.
"The artillery force that was formed in the Argentine army from 1810 to 1826 had no number of order. Recently, when Don Bernardino Rivadavia was president of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, he created a regiment of light artillery, in accordance with a decree, dated May 9, 1826, endorsed by General Don Carlos María de Alvear. That is the origin of our current Regiment (1933) 1st Mounted Artillery. Its first commander was Lieutenant Colonel Don Tomás de Iriarte, a distinguished soldier, of vast preparation and extensive knowledge acquired in the Spanish classrooms, where he completed his education".
Here is the decree of his appointment, also signed by Don Bernardino Rivadavia and by the Minister of War, General Don Carlos María de Alvear:
"The President of the Republic of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata: "In view of the merits and services of the Lieutenant Colonel of Artillery, Don Tomás de Iriarte, has come to confer on him the command or organization of the Light Artillery Regiment." Granting him the graces, exemptions and privileges that correspond to him by this title. Therefore, he orders and orders that he have, has and recognizes as such Commander for which the present dispatch is issued, which will be taken into account in the General Accounting Office." From the City of Buenos Aires, on the twenty-fourth day of May, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-six." BERNARDINO RIVADAVIA. — CARLOS MARÍA DE ALVEAR.
Here is the decree of his appointment, also signed by Don Bernardino Rivadavia and by the Minister of War, General Don Carlos María de Alvear:
"The President of the Republic of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata: "In view of the merits and services of the Lieutenant Colonel of Artillery, Don Tomás de Iriarte, has come to confer on him the command or organization of the Light Artillery Regiment." Granting him the graces, exemptions and privileges that correspond to him by this title. Therefore, he orders and orders that he have, has and recognizes as such Commander for which the present dispatch is issued, which will be taken into account in the General Accounting Office." From the City of Buenos Aires, on the twenty-fourth day of May, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-six." BERNARDINO RIVADAVIA. — CARLOS MARÍA DE ALVEAR.
In mid-July 1826, that is, two months after its creation, the regiment had a force of 21 officers, 35 non-commissioned officers, 9 buglers and 230 soldiers.
Article published in Caras y Caretas on 10/6/1933 by Captain Ricardo Schauman.
Schauman traces the unit's origins to the post-colonial era, specifically referencing the Artillería Volante (Flying Artillery) and the reorganization of the Argentine Army during the formative years of the Republic.
In that 1933 article, Schauman refers to it strictly by its official designation at the time: Regimiento 1 de Artillería Montada.
The honorary name "General Iriarte" was not officially granted to the unit until November 1944 (by Decree No. 30.861), which is why Schauman’s writing focuses on the unit's number and functional identity as "mounted artillery" rather than the name it is known by today.
On May 9, 1826, during his presidency, Rivadavia signed the decree creating the Regimiento de Artillería Ligera (Light Artillery Regiment). While the unit’s lineage technically stretches back to the volunteers of the English Invasions, its formal birth as a numbered regiment of the Republic was a direct result of Rivadavia’s push to centralize and modernize the military during the War with Brazil.
The uniform described by Captain Ricardo Schauman in 1933 is a "transition" or specific campaign version that differs from the ceremonial "Iriarte" historical recreation seen today. The original uniform wore shako with gold laces and probably red plume.
A blue sleeve cap (gorro de manga) or forage cap with red piping was the specific barracks or "undress" headgear for the 1st Regiment of Mounted Artillery.
The historical used a metal helmet that is probably the result of a misconception of the leather helmet used during the English invasions (Tarleton) by the Buenos Aires militias and that continued in use during the War of Independence with the mounted artillery.
Article published in Caras y Caretas on 10/6/1933 by Captain Ricardo Schauman.
Schauman traces the unit's origins to the post-colonial era, specifically referencing the Artillería Volante (Flying Artillery) and the reorganization of the Argentine Army during the formative years of the Republic.
In that 1933 article, Schauman refers to it strictly by its official designation at the time: Regimiento 1 de Artillería Montada.
The honorary name "General Iriarte" was not officially granted to the unit until November 1944 (by Decree No. 30.861), which is why Schauman’s writing focuses on the unit's number and functional identity as "mounted artillery" rather than the name it is known by today.
On May 9, 1826, during his presidency, Rivadavia signed the decree creating the Regimiento de Artillería Ligera (Light Artillery Regiment). While the unit’s lineage technically stretches back to the volunteers of the English Invasions, its formal birth as a numbered regiment of the Republic was a direct result of Rivadavia’s push to centralize and modernize the military during the War with Brazil.
The uniform described by Captain Ricardo Schauman in 1933 is a "transition" or specific campaign version that differs from the ceremonial "Iriarte" historical recreation seen today. The original uniform wore shako with gold laces and probably red plume.
A blue sleeve cap (gorro de manga) or forage cap with red piping was the specific barracks or "undress" headgear for the 1st Regiment of Mounted Artillery.
The historical used a metal helmet that is probably the result of a misconception of the leather helmet used during the English invasions (Tarleton) by the Buenos Aires militias and that continued in use during the War of Independence with the mounted artillery.
War with the Empire of Brazil 1826 - 1828
During the War against the Empire of Brazil (1825–1828), also known as the Cisplatine War, the Argentine artillery primarily utilized smoothbore bronze cannons of the following calibers:
16-pounders: Heavy pieces used in fortifications and batteries, such as those at the Mouth of the Salado River.
12-pounders: Used as siege and position guns.
While heavy guns existed, the mobile nature of the Cisplatine War meant that lighter calibers and specialized pieces like howitzers were the real workhorses on the battlefield.
4 and 8-pounders: These were the most common field guns. Their lighter weight was critical for the Argentine army, which had to move quickly across the difficult, marshy terrain of the Banda Oriental (modern-day Uruguay). At the Battle of Ituzaingó, these calibers allowed the artillery to keep pace with the cavalry-heavy maneuvers.
6-pounder Howitzers: The Argentine park included 6-inch field howitzers. These were prized for their "high-angle" fire, allowing them to lob explosive shells over obstacles or into enemy infantry squares, which was a common tactic used by the better-equipped Brazilian Imperial infantry.
Low-caliber bronze cannons: A variety of smaller "mountain" or light field pieces (likely 2 or 4-pounders) were essential for maneuvering across the rugged terrains of the Banda Oriental.
The Argentine naval forces under Admiral Guillermo Brown used a wider range of calibers on their ships, including 8, 12, 18, and 24-pounders, often salvaged or repurposed to break the Brazilian naval blockade of Buenos Aires.
Predominantly bronze material, as it was more durable and less prone to bursting than iron pieces of that era.
Many pieces were of Spanish or French design, often dating back to the late 18th century, as the United Provinces relied on existing colonial stockpiles and captured equipment.
In land battles like Ituzaingó (February 20, 1827), the light artillery (4 and 8-pounders) was critical for supporting cavalry charges and suppressing the better-equipped Imperial Brazilian infantry.
16-pounders: Heavy pieces used in fortifications and batteries, such as those at the Mouth of the Salado River.
12-pounders: Used as siege and position guns.
While heavy guns existed, the mobile nature of the Cisplatine War meant that lighter calibers and specialized pieces like howitzers were the real workhorses on the battlefield.
4 and 8-pounders: These were the most common field guns. Their lighter weight was critical for the Argentine army, which had to move quickly across the difficult, marshy terrain of the Banda Oriental (modern-day Uruguay). At the Battle of Ituzaingó, these calibers allowed the artillery to keep pace with the cavalry-heavy maneuvers.
6-pounder Howitzers: The Argentine park included 6-inch field howitzers. These were prized for their "high-angle" fire, allowing them to lob explosive shells over obstacles or into enemy infantry squares, which was a common tactic used by the better-equipped Brazilian Imperial infantry.
Low-caliber bronze cannons: A variety of smaller "mountain" or light field pieces (likely 2 or 4-pounders) were essential for maneuvering across the rugged terrains of the Banda Oriental.
The Argentine naval forces under Admiral Guillermo Brown used a wider range of calibers on their ships, including 8, 12, 18, and 24-pounders, often salvaged or repurposed to break the Brazilian naval blockade of Buenos Aires.
Predominantly bronze material, as it was more durable and less prone to bursting than iron pieces of that era.
Many pieces were of Spanish or French design, often dating back to the late 18th century, as the United Provinces relied on existing colonial stockpiles and captured equipment.
In land battles like Ituzaingó (February 20, 1827), the light artillery (4 and 8-pounders) was critical for supporting cavalry charges and suppressing the better-equipped Imperial Brazilian infantry.
After having left the army in 1821 to study engineering, Martiniano Chilavert returned to military service when the conflict broke out. At the start of his participation in this war in 1826, he held the rank of Captain.
Even as a Captain, he was operating more as a combat engineer-artillerist, using his earlier engineering studies to maximize the effectiveness of the Republican cannons in the difficult, muddy terrain of the battlefield.
Like Colonel Argentino del Valle Larrabure, who was a Chemical Engineer specialized in explosives and the deputy director of a military factory, Martiniano Chilavert represents the intellectual wing of the military.
He was promoted to the rank of Sargento Mayor (equivalent to the current rank of Major) following his distinguished performance at the Battle of Ituzaingó (February 20, 1827), where he served under Colonel Tomás de Iriarte.
During the Cisplatine War (also known as the War against Brazil, 1825–1828), Martiniano Chilavert solidified his reputation as one of the most technical and courageous artillerymen of the Republican Army. His role was pivotal on the front lines, where his mathematical and engineering knowledge applied to artillery made a significant difference.
Battle of Ituzaingó (1827)
He served under Colonel Tomás de Iriarte. On the battlefield, after demonstrating exceptional courage and technical skill, he was promoted to the rank of Sargento Mayor (Major) and awarded the "Cordón de los Vencedores" (Victors' Cord).
Defense of the Paraná River
Prior to the major land campaigns, he was in charge of an artillery battery along the Paraná River to monitor and control the movements of the Imperial fleet.
Combat of Puerto del Salado
In November 1827, he led the defense that prevented a Brazilian force from landing at the mouth of the Salado River.
Conquest of the Misiones (1828)
He joined the forces of Fructuoso Rivera during the successful recovery of the Misiones Orientales, one of the final major military actions before the peace treaty was signed.
Argentine Civil War
After the war against Brazil, Chilavert fought in the Argentine civil wars on the Unitarian side, where he fought valiantly in many battles of the civil war.
Chilavert was a staunch Unitarian, but he was first and foremost a patriot. When he saw Juan Lavalle accepting French logistical support and naval blockades to overthrow Rosas, he saw it as a betrayal of independence. He famously remarked that he could not fight for a cause that relied on foreign bayonets against his own country.
After years of exile and fighting for the Unitarian cause, the sight of Brazilian troops (the same ones he defeated at Ituzaingó as a Captain) marching on Argentine soil as part of Urquiza’s "Ejército Grande" was too much for him.
He offered his sword to Juan Manuel de Rosas not because he became a Federalist, but because Rosas represented the defense of the territory against the Empire of Brazil and the interventionists.
He commanded the artillery at Caseros with legendary bravery. When he ran out of ammunition, he reportedly ordered his men to fire stones and even the buttons from their uniforms (a detail that fits your interest in his clothing!).
After the battle, he was taken before Urquiza. Instead of pleading for his life, he stood his ground, defending his decision to fight for the sovereignty of the nation. He was executed in a brutal manner not by a firing squad, but by bayonets because he refused to turn his back to the executioners, demanding to be shot in the chest like a soldier.
He died as he lived, a man of science and military discipline who placed sovereignty above any political party.
Even as a Captain, he was operating more as a combat engineer-artillerist, using his earlier engineering studies to maximize the effectiveness of the Republican cannons in the difficult, muddy terrain of the battlefield.
Like Colonel Argentino del Valle Larrabure, who was a Chemical Engineer specialized in explosives and the deputy director of a military factory, Martiniano Chilavert represents the intellectual wing of the military.
He was promoted to the rank of Sargento Mayor (equivalent to the current rank of Major) following his distinguished performance at the Battle of Ituzaingó (February 20, 1827), where he served under Colonel Tomás de Iriarte.
During the Cisplatine War (also known as the War against Brazil, 1825–1828), Martiniano Chilavert solidified his reputation as one of the most technical and courageous artillerymen of the Republican Army. His role was pivotal on the front lines, where his mathematical and engineering knowledge applied to artillery made a significant difference.
Battle of Ituzaingó (1827)
He served under Colonel Tomás de Iriarte. On the battlefield, after demonstrating exceptional courage and technical skill, he was promoted to the rank of Sargento Mayor (Major) and awarded the "Cordón de los Vencedores" (Victors' Cord).
Defense of the Paraná River
Prior to the major land campaigns, he was in charge of an artillery battery along the Paraná River to monitor and control the movements of the Imperial fleet.
Combat of Puerto del Salado
In November 1827, he led the defense that prevented a Brazilian force from landing at the mouth of the Salado River.
Conquest of the Misiones (1828)
He joined the forces of Fructuoso Rivera during the successful recovery of the Misiones Orientales, one of the final major military actions before the peace treaty was signed.
Argentine Civil War
After the war against Brazil, Chilavert fought in the Argentine civil wars on the Unitarian side, where he fought valiantly in many battles of the civil war.
Chilavert was a staunch Unitarian, but he was first and foremost a patriot. When he saw Juan Lavalle accepting French logistical support and naval blockades to overthrow Rosas, he saw it as a betrayal of independence. He famously remarked that he could not fight for a cause that relied on foreign bayonets against his own country.
After years of exile and fighting for the Unitarian cause, the sight of Brazilian troops (the same ones he defeated at Ituzaingó as a Captain) marching on Argentine soil as part of Urquiza’s "Ejército Grande" was too much for him.
He offered his sword to Juan Manuel de Rosas not because he became a Federalist, but because Rosas represented the defense of the territory against the Empire of Brazil and the interventionists.
He commanded the artillery at Caseros with legendary bravery. When he ran out of ammunition, he reportedly ordered his men to fire stones and even the buttons from their uniforms (a detail that fits your interest in his clothing!).
After the battle, he was taken before Urquiza. Instead of pleading for his life, he stood his ground, defending his decision to fight for the sovereignty of the nation. He was executed in a brutal manner not by a firing squad, but by bayonets because he refused to turn his back to the executioners, demanding to be shot in the chest like a soldier.
He died as he lived, a man of science and military discipline who placed sovereignty above any political party.
"................Rozas' forces offered almost no resistance, and their defeat only had the honor of being bravely saluted by Chilavert's cannons in the two positions he successively occupied, fighting alone with his artillerymen as he had done in the battle of Arroyo Grande under the banner of liberty. It is pleasing to me to pay this posthumous tribute to the memory of my former chief and master of artillery, whose apostasy I will return in life, and whose death occurs in the presence of the victor of Caseros".
Letter from Bartolomé Mitre to Saldias
Letter from Bartolomé Mitre to Saldias
Mounted/Light Artillery:
Valee French system, Artillery train limber and gun. Capture of a daguerrotype.from 1854 in Buenos Aires.
The artillery force that served in the Argentine forces from 1810 until May 9, 1826 had no numbered order. It was in 1826 when the Mounted Artillery Regiment 1 or Light was created and whose first head was Colonel Iriarte. The
regiment began counting on 21 officers, almost all former students of military academies in the Spanish Viceroyalty, 35 NCOs, 9 horns (for the time a weapon of communications), and 230 soldiers. Iriarte and his men were highlighted
during the First War with the Empire of Brazil, with special mention to the officers Chilavert Arengreen and Piran. Then the regiment would pass to the orders of General Juan Ramón Balcarce. A battery assisted Mayor Juan B. Thorne to defend the island Martin Garcia against the French. In this act of war Argentine Corporal Estanislao Maldones drove one of the guns and later managed to be second in command of that regiment.
John Thorne, an Argentine officer, was born in New York and nicknamed "The deaf of Obligado Combat" for a disability suffered after the fight against the Anglo-French forces at the battle of Quebracho and Obligado in 1845.
Later the regiment was employed in all of Parana, where they fought Garibaldi, Prussian forces, and other mercenaries.
During the Battle of Caseros in 1852, the Regiment under Colonel Martiniano Chilavert faced a Brazilian, Uruguayan and Argentine alliance, among whom was Colonel Piran former member of the Regiment. Chilavert Colonel remained
with only 60 guns and 500 wagons after the flight of his troops.
Source: Captain Ricardo Schauman, 1933.
regiment began counting on 21 officers, almost all former students of military academies in the Spanish Viceroyalty, 35 NCOs, 9 horns (for the time a weapon of communications), and 230 soldiers. Iriarte and his men were highlighted
during the First War with the Empire of Brazil, with special mention to the officers Chilavert Arengreen and Piran. Then the regiment would pass to the orders of General Juan Ramón Balcarce. A battery assisted Mayor Juan B. Thorne to defend the island Martin Garcia against the French. In this act of war Argentine Corporal Estanislao Maldones drove one of the guns and later managed to be second in command of that regiment.
John Thorne, an Argentine officer, was born in New York and nicknamed "The deaf of Obligado Combat" for a disability suffered after the fight against the Anglo-French forces at the battle of Quebracho and Obligado in 1845.
Later the regiment was employed in all of Parana, where they fought Garibaldi, Prussian forces, and other mercenaries.
During the Battle of Caseros in 1852, the Regiment under Colonel Martiniano Chilavert faced a Brazilian, Uruguayan and Argentine alliance, among whom was Colonel Piran former member of the Regiment. Chilavert Colonel remained
with only 60 guns and 500 wagons after the flight of his troops.
Source: Captain Ricardo Schauman, 1933.
Congreve Missile Launcher
The first recorded combat use in the region occurred during the naval campaigns in the Banda Oriental (Today Uruguay). On December 9, 1841, the Argentine ship San Martín, commanded by Admiral Guillermo Brown, was equipped with a rocket launcher and fired five Congreve rockets at the Colorado's vessel Cagancha. Colorado Party was allied of the Unitarian party against the Federal party (Blanco or White in Uruguay).
Siege of Montevideo (1843–1851)
The "Great Siege" that preceded Caseros saw frequent use of these rockets. The Argentine-Uruguayan army laying siege to Montevideo initially deployed two "Congreve rocket machines".
Anglo-French Blockade (1845–1846)
During the Paraná War, Argentine forces used Congreve rockets against the joint British and French fleets. This is particularly ironic, as they were using British-designed technology against the British themselves.
During the Battle of Caseros on February 3, 1852, the Grand Army (Ejército Grande), allied Multinacional Forces, included a Congreve Rocket Battery as part of the 1st Roving Artillery Regiment, alongside 50 standard guns.
The Argentine Confederation Army, also deployed Congreve batteries to support their 60 cannons and the Palomar fortification. While the final stage of the battle was dominated by a traditional artillery duel led by Colonel Martiniano Chilavert, the Congreve batteries were valued for psychological Warfare, because the rockets' distinctive "shrill whistle" and unpredictable smoke trails were designed to induce panic, especially among cavalry horses and inexperienced infantry.
Unlike heavy cannons that required cumbersome carriages, Congreve rockets could be fired from lightweight troughs or tripods, making them easier to maneuver in the swampy terrain near the Morón stream; But they were famously "dependable" for turning back on their own crews or flying in random directions due to a lack of stabilizers, which often led columns on both sides to scatter to avoid friendly fire.
The Congreve Missile Launcher was an artillery weapon. In the mid-19th century, Congreve rockets were not considered infantry "support" in the modern sense; they were managed by specialized units within the Artillery Corps.
Siege of Montevideo (1843–1851)
The "Great Siege" that preceded Caseros saw frequent use of these rockets. The Argentine-Uruguayan army laying siege to Montevideo initially deployed two "Congreve rocket machines".
Anglo-French Blockade (1845–1846)
During the Paraná War, Argentine forces used Congreve rockets against the joint British and French fleets. This is particularly ironic, as they were using British-designed technology against the British themselves.
During the Battle of Caseros on February 3, 1852, the Grand Army (Ejército Grande), allied Multinacional Forces, included a Congreve Rocket Battery as part of the 1st Roving Artillery Regiment, alongside 50 standard guns.
The Argentine Confederation Army, also deployed Congreve batteries to support their 60 cannons and the Palomar fortification. While the final stage of the battle was dominated by a traditional artillery duel led by Colonel Martiniano Chilavert, the Congreve batteries were valued for psychological Warfare, because the rockets' distinctive "shrill whistle" and unpredictable smoke trails were designed to induce panic, especially among cavalry horses and inexperienced infantry.
Unlike heavy cannons that required cumbersome carriages, Congreve rockets could be fired from lightweight troughs or tripods, making them easier to maneuver in the swampy terrain near the Morón stream; But they were famously "dependable" for turning back on their own crews or flying in random directions due to a lack of stabilizers, which often led columns on both sides to scatter to avoid friendly fire.
The Congreve Missile Launcher was an artillery weapon. In the mid-19th century, Congreve rockets were not considered infantry "support" in the modern sense; they were managed by specialized units within the Artillery Corps.
Left: Interesting image from the magazine Caras y Caretas from 1935. It shows an example of old cannons from the era of the Argentine Confederation, once used in the independence war and re-furbished around 1860. This cannon in particular is from the 18th Century Royal Spanish Artillery and re-used by Argentina in its war for independence and other successive wars. In the middle of the 19th Century (when they were becoming obsolete), they served the towns to alert residents of Indian attacks. Many remained in the plazas, as each Town had one or more per fort.
Right: This photo is from Caras y Caretas from 1911. This gun was part of a rebel battery captured by the Paraguayan government during Paraguay's civil war (1911-1912). The wooden carriage looks like from the Napoleonic wars, that is, from the muzzle-loading era. But in reality it was a Krupp type Mountain gun from the Franco-Prussian War era, round-back sliding wedge, mounted on a wooden carriage.
During the Paraguayan War, Argentina received the first Krupp that were of the Mountain type. A first batch in 1865 (C/64), and a second batch (C/67 export stock) towards the end of that war with the same breech system seen in that photo. It is likely that this Krupp was Argentine, since after the war the Argentine army remained as an occupying force.
Right: This photo is from Caras y Caretas from 1911. This gun was part of a rebel battery captured by the Paraguayan government during Paraguay's civil war (1911-1912). The wooden carriage looks like from the Napoleonic wars, that is, from the muzzle-loading era. But in reality it was a Krupp type Mountain gun from the Franco-Prussian War era, round-back sliding wedge, mounted on a wooden carriage.
During the Paraguayan War, Argentina received the first Krupp that were of the Mountain type. A first batch in 1865 (C/64), and a second batch (C/67 export stock) towards the end of that war with the same breech system seen in that photo. It is likely that this Krupp was Argentine, since after the war the Argentine army remained as an occupying force.
The First Krupps. War of Paraguay (1864-1870).
Historical evidence confirms that Paraguay ordered Krupp artillery prior to or during the war but never actually received them due to the Allied naval blockade. Before and during the conflict (1864–1870), the government of Francisco Solano López attempted to modernize its artillery by ordering steel pieces from Krupp in Germany.
Because the Brazilian Navy maintained a strict blockade of the Río de la Plata and the Paraguay River, these modern breech-loaders could not reach the landlocked nation.
Instead of captured Krupps, the Allies famously captured Paraguayan made "technological wonders" like the "El Cristiano" and "El Criollo". These were massive 150-lb (approx. 254mm) rifled cannons cast in Asunción from melted church bells and scrap metal an impressive but desperate engineering feat.
Because the Brazilian Navy maintained a strict blockade of the Río de la Plata and the Paraguay River, these modern breech-loaders could not reach the landlocked nation.
Instead of captured Krupps, the Allies famously captured Paraguayan made "technological wonders" like the "El Cristiano" and "El Criollo". These were massive 150-lb (approx. 254mm) rifled cannons cast in Asunción from melted church bells and scrap metal an impressive but desperate engineering feat.
Marshal Francisco Solano Lopez in France
Argentine Allied Artillery in Paraguay
The Argentine Artillery had an obsolete park in the Muzzleloader type, modernized in 4, 8 and 12 inch caliber (Mountain), 6" Field Howitzer and Siege 8". Possibly a French origin. Recall that the victors in Caseros were armed in Montevideo by France, equipped by Brazil who, in turn, had received arms from England.
In 1865 Argentina aquired its first batch of 10 Krupp cannon, of 75 mm L/13 type C/64, a mountain model that was sent to the front immediately and followed up by 11 more, these later should have been C/67 the hybrid export.
In 1865 Argentina aquired its first batch of 10 Krupp cannon, of 75 mm L/13 type C/64, a mountain model that was sent to the front immediately and followed up by 11 more, these later should have been C/67 the hybrid export.
75mm L/13 C/67 Krupps Export Models in The Paraguay War
C/64 GK (7.5cm) L/13: Used the square double-wedge breech. These were foundational for the Argentine mountain artillery but were notoriously heavy for animal transport.
C/67 GK (7.5cm) L/13: The "D-shape" (Cylindro-prismatic) upgrade. Argentina favored these because the rounded breech ring was less likely to crack during the extreme temperature shifts of the Andes Mountains.
Argentina acquired the first batch of 10 Krupp 75mm L/13 guns in 1865. These were the C/64 model featuring the double wedge (Kreiner system) breech.This was the same "Prussian" system where two sliding steel blocks were forced together by a screw to create a seal.
These first batch was immediately sent to the front. It was followed by another batch of 75mm L/13 but with the hybrid export configuration known as C/67. It is likely that these were the first Krupps in Argentina and that they remained in Paraguay after the war.
Paraguay tried to buy artillery from krupp, although the country was a traditional client of France. It is not known whether what models or if these were passed directly from the factory to the victors as post-war repairs. The theory that they arrived during the war is unlikely, since Paraguay was surrounded.
1870 - 1876. Occupation
Argentina’s post-war involvement in Paraguay was a complex mix of military control and institutional rebuilding. Following the fall of Asunción in 1869 and the death of Solano López in 1870, the occupation lasted significantly longer than the combat phase.
Following the signing of the Machaín-Irigoyen Treaty on February 3, 1876, Argentine and Brazilian occupational troops officially began their complete withdrawal from Paraguay. By the mid-summer of 1876, the bulk of the Allied occupation forces had departed.
New Paraguayan Army
The core of the new post-war military was formed by the Paraguayan Legion. These were Paraguayans who had lived in exile in Buenos Aires and fought alongside the Argentine Army against Solano López.
Argentina played a direct, though controversial, role in forming the new Paraguayan military. Because the pre-war Paraguayan army had been almost entirely annihilated, the new force was built from scratch under Allied supervision. It is highly probable that the Krupp artillery seen in early 20th-century Paraguayan photos consisted of surplus or captured material from the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870), specifically the C/64 or C/67 export models.
The Hybrid C/67 (C/7C/64 carriage)
The hybrid C/64/73 was the C/67 Krupp export mode. It was 75mm and had the round-back breech mounted on C/64 wooden carriage. Argentine Army purchased (11) at the end of the War of the Triple Alliance (Paraguay War).
The C/73 (Material C/71/73) was the transition breech point where the German Army abandoned the C/64 system and standardized the Krupp horizontal sliding wedge with the definitive C/80.
Note: Those 1911 photographs from Paraguay likely depict Krupp 7.5 cm L/13 Gebirgskanone that were inherited by Argentina after the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870). These guns had transitional C/67 "Rundkeil" cylindro-prismatic (round-back) breech The guns in but they are not the standard C/73. The presence of the wooden carriage is the key indicator of hybrid C/64/73 often referred to as the C/67 export model.
There are photos from the 1930s, where the Paraguayan army uses 75mm L/13 06 Gebirskanone. It is likely that the Paraguayan army continued to use this type of mountain weapon because of the terrain. Paraguay has a tropical and subtropical climate, and its unique terrain made the mountain gun a decisive weapon, even in areas without traditional mountains. Also they used them during the Chaco War (1932–1935).
C/67 GK (7.5cm) L/13: The "D-shape" (Cylindro-prismatic) upgrade. Argentina favored these because the rounded breech ring was less likely to crack during the extreme temperature shifts of the Andes Mountains.
Argentina acquired the first batch of 10 Krupp 75mm L/13 guns in 1865. These were the C/64 model featuring the double wedge (Kreiner system) breech.This was the same "Prussian" system where two sliding steel blocks were forced together by a screw to create a seal.
These first batch was immediately sent to the front. It was followed by another batch of 75mm L/13 but with the hybrid export configuration known as C/67. It is likely that these were the first Krupps in Argentina and that they remained in Paraguay after the war.
Paraguay tried to buy artillery from krupp, although the country was a traditional client of France. It is not known whether what models or if these were passed directly from the factory to the victors as post-war repairs. The theory that they arrived during the war is unlikely, since Paraguay was surrounded.
1870 - 1876. Occupation
Argentina’s post-war involvement in Paraguay was a complex mix of military control and institutional rebuilding. Following the fall of Asunción in 1869 and the death of Solano López in 1870, the occupation lasted significantly longer than the combat phase.
Following the signing of the Machaín-Irigoyen Treaty on February 3, 1876, Argentine and Brazilian occupational troops officially began their complete withdrawal from Paraguay. By the mid-summer of 1876, the bulk of the Allied occupation forces had departed.
New Paraguayan Army
The core of the new post-war military was formed by the Paraguayan Legion. These were Paraguayans who had lived in exile in Buenos Aires and fought alongside the Argentine Army against Solano López.
Argentina played a direct, though controversial, role in forming the new Paraguayan military. Because the pre-war Paraguayan army had been almost entirely annihilated, the new force was built from scratch under Allied supervision. It is highly probable that the Krupp artillery seen in early 20th-century Paraguayan photos consisted of surplus or captured material from the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870), specifically the C/64 or C/67 export models.
The Hybrid C/67 (C/7C/64 carriage)
The hybrid C/64/73 was the C/67 Krupp export mode. It was 75mm and had the round-back breech mounted on C/64 wooden carriage. Argentine Army purchased (11) at the end of the War of the Triple Alliance (Paraguay War).
The C/73 (Material C/71/73) was the transition breech point where the German Army abandoned the C/64 system and standardized the Krupp horizontal sliding wedge with the definitive C/80.
Note: Those 1911 photographs from Paraguay likely depict Krupp 7.5 cm L/13 Gebirgskanone that were inherited by Argentina after the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870). These guns had transitional C/67 "Rundkeil" cylindro-prismatic (round-back) breech The guns in but they are not the standard C/73. The presence of the wooden carriage is the key indicator of hybrid C/64/73 often referred to as the C/67 export model.
There are photos from the 1930s, where the Paraguayan army uses 75mm L/13 06 Gebirskanone. It is likely that the Paraguayan army continued to use this type of mountain weapon because of the terrain. Paraguay has a tropical and subtropical climate, and its unique terrain made the mountain gun a decisive weapon, even in areas without traditional mountains. Also they used them during the Chaco War (1932–1935).
1890. The "Revolution of the Artillery Park" (or Revolution of the Park, Revolución del Parque)
Old Artillery Park. This castle was torn down and the site now hosts the Court (Palacio de Justicia).
During The Artillery Park Revolution or July 1890 Revolution: General Campos ordered the defense of the Park and had Krupp cannons installed at the six intersections that guarded the access points. Major Ricardo Day, with the help of Captains Roldán and Fernández and Lieutenant Layera carried it out. Especially critical would be the series of batteries located on the corner of Talcahuano and Viamonte, at the door of the Escuela Avellaneda, one block away from the Park on the same street. Captains Manuel Roldán and Luis Fernández rebelled with their strategic Regimiento 1º de Artillería, with the news Krupp 75 cannons under the leadership of Major Ricardo Day.
This "Revolution of the Park" essentially marked the end of the "Generation of '80" elite's uncontested rule and the beginning of the transition toward a more modern, professionalized military and representative democracy.
This "Revolution of the Park" essentially marked the end of the "Generation of '80" elite's uncontested rule and the beginning of the transition toward a more modern, professionalized military and representative democracy.
1890, Artillery Arsenal. Krupp 75mm c/80 Field Gun. Probably contract in 1889. Photo: Caras y Caretas
C/61, C/64 and the C/73 (Krupp Material Construction)
C/61 and C/64: Both the C/61 and C/64 guns were famously constructed of cast steel (specifically crucible steel), a material choice that defined Alfred Krupp’s "Cannon King" legacy. At a time when other nations still relied on bronze or cast iron, Krupp’s use of high-strength steel allowed for larger propellant charges, resulting in superior range and accuracy.
C/67: was not strictly an export-only model; it was a standard Prussian field gun that served alongside the C/64. However, Krupp did produce a specific export version of the C/67 that differed significantly from the version used by the Prussian army. This was the "Heavy" 6-pounder (9cm) or "Light" 4-pounder (8cm) field gun used by the North German and Prussian armies. It typically retained the rectangular (square-back) breech block.
C/67 - Prussian Service Model: This was the "Heavy" 6-pounder (9cm) or "Light" 4-pounder (8cm) field gun used by the North German and Prussian armies. It typically retained the rectangular (square-back) breech block.
C/67 - Krupp Export Model: This version was sold to nations like the Ottoman Empire, Romania, and Egypt. It is most easily identified by its round-back (cylindro-prismatic) breech block.
C/67 and C/68/69.
The confusion exists in how Krupp handled production cycles versus official Prussian designations.
The "C/67" refers to the Construktionsjahr (Year of Construction/Design). This was the year Krupp finalized the move from the old square breech to the "D" shaped cylindro-prismatic block. The date stamped on the barrel is the manufacturing date. Since it took a year to set up the assembly line and fulfill foreign orders, many "C/67" export guns are stamped "1868" or even "1869".
At the rear of that breech, it isn't a sharp-edged cube (like the C/64). It is rounded off. This "D" shape (Cylindro-prismatic) was the "transitional" step. It allowed for a stronger breech ring because there were no sharp interior corners where cracks could start.
It is mounted on a C/64-style wooden carriage. This was common for export. Foreign customers often bought the "new" steel barrel and breech (C/67) but requested the "old" proven carriage (C/64) because their local workshops already knew how to repair the wood and iron components of the older design.
This C/67 export model used the improved Broadwell Ring for gas sealing, which sat inside the "D" shaped block. This was a massive upgrade over the early C/64 systems which often leaked gas.
C/73 (Construktionsjahr 1873) was a series of breech-loading steel field guns developed by Fried. Krupp AG following the Franco-Prussian War. C/73 was essentially the "lessons learned" from the failures of the previous models.
The C/61 used a cylindrical piston breech and C/64 used a square sliding-wedge. In the last the breech block was essentially a rectangular (square-edged) block that slid horizontally through the breech. With the C/73, Krupp moved to iron and steel carriages for the Prussian Army. The Material C/73 wasn't just a revolution for the breech; it was the end of the "wooden age" for Prussian field artillery.
The sharp 90-degree corners of the breech slot acted as "stress risers," where cracks would form and eventually cause the steel to unzip. Krupp introduced the cylindro-prismatic (half-round) breech. By rounding the back of the block, they eliminated those stress points, making the gun much safer for the crew.
The transition from the original C/73 to the C/73-88 and finally the C/73-91 represents a fascinating period where metallurgy had to catch up to the "Chemical Revolution" in explosives.
1888. It seems counter-intuitive that a more powerful powder (smokeless) allowed for a lighter gun, but it comes down to the Pressure Curve.
Black Powder exploded almost instantly, creating a massive, sharp "spike" of pressure right at the breech. The barrel had to be incredibly thick (and heavy) at the base to survive.
Smokeless Powder burned more slowly and "pushed" the shell down the barrel. This resulted in a lower peak pressure but a more sustained push. Krupp engineers realized they could shave weight off the barrel (lightening the tube) without risking a burst.
The 9cm C/73-88-91 was the "workhorse" that benefited most from these upgrades. By the time it was modernized with nickel steel in 1891, it was roughly 10-15% lighter than the 1873 original, making it significantly more mobile for horse-drawn batteries.
C/80: The Krupp C/80 (Construction 1880) arrived in 1880 as a modernized series primarily designed for the export market.
Steel Type and Construction The C/80 series utilized crucible cast steel (Gussstahl), but featured a more advanced structural design than the original C/73
Unlike the earlier solid-cast barrels, the C/80 used a central rifled tube reinforced with a steel hoop (or jacket) extending from the trunnions to the breech. Interestingly, for the domestic German 12 cm Kanone C/80 and the 9 cm Kanone C/79, Krupp actually melted down captured French bronze cannons from the 1870 war to use as material for some components, though the primary tubes remained steel.
The transition from Brittleness (Carbon Steel) to Toughness/Tenacity (Nickel Steel). In metallurgical terms, Krupp was moving from a material with high hardness but low impact strength to one with high ductility. This was the "Insurance Policy" of the 1890s.
Krupp pushed nickel steel on the C/80 (and the updated C/73-91), not to increase the range of a standard shrapnel shell, but to prevent premature detonation from destroying the gun.
Used black powder or low-order explosives. They didn't "shock" the steel as violently upon ignition. Carbon steel was perfectly adequate for these. High Explosives (Melanite/Picric Acid), were much more "brilliant" (faster detonation). If a shell had a tiny flaw or if the barrel was too brittle, the vibration or "set-back" force could cause the shell to explode inside the tube. Nickel steel provided tenacity. If a high-explosive shell did malfunction, a nickel-steel barrel was more likely to bulge or tear rather than shatter into thousands of lethal shards (shrapnel) that would kill the gun crew.
The C/80 Export stock typically featured a longer barrel (L/27 vs. L/24) for improved muzzle velocity.
It was built with a larger chamber specifically to accommodate the more powerful smokeless powder charges that were becoming standard in the 1880s. It featured a bolted steel plate box trail carriage instead of the older wooden or heavy iron-braced carriages, making it lighter and more durable for field use.
C/67: was not strictly an export-only model; it was a standard Prussian field gun that served alongside the C/64. However, Krupp did produce a specific export version of the C/67 that differed significantly from the version used by the Prussian army. This was the "Heavy" 6-pounder (9cm) or "Light" 4-pounder (8cm) field gun used by the North German and Prussian armies. It typically retained the rectangular (square-back) breech block.
C/67 - Prussian Service Model: This was the "Heavy" 6-pounder (9cm) or "Light" 4-pounder (8cm) field gun used by the North German and Prussian armies. It typically retained the rectangular (square-back) breech block.
C/67 - Krupp Export Model: This version was sold to nations like the Ottoman Empire, Romania, and Egypt. It is most easily identified by its round-back (cylindro-prismatic) breech block.
C/67 and C/68/69.
The confusion exists in how Krupp handled production cycles versus official Prussian designations.
The "C/67" refers to the Construktionsjahr (Year of Construction/Design). This was the year Krupp finalized the move from the old square breech to the "D" shaped cylindro-prismatic block. The date stamped on the barrel is the manufacturing date. Since it took a year to set up the assembly line and fulfill foreign orders, many "C/67" export guns are stamped "1868" or even "1869".
At the rear of that breech, it isn't a sharp-edged cube (like the C/64). It is rounded off. This "D" shape (Cylindro-prismatic) was the "transitional" step. It allowed for a stronger breech ring because there were no sharp interior corners where cracks could start.
It is mounted on a C/64-style wooden carriage. This was common for export. Foreign customers often bought the "new" steel barrel and breech (C/67) but requested the "old" proven carriage (C/64) because their local workshops already knew how to repair the wood and iron components of the older design.
This C/67 export model used the improved Broadwell Ring for gas sealing, which sat inside the "D" shaped block. This was a massive upgrade over the early C/64 systems which often leaked gas.
C/73 (Construktionsjahr 1873) was a series of breech-loading steel field guns developed by Fried. Krupp AG following the Franco-Prussian War. C/73 was essentially the "lessons learned" from the failures of the previous models.
The C/61 used a cylindrical piston breech and C/64 used a square sliding-wedge. In the last the breech block was essentially a rectangular (square-edged) block that slid horizontally through the breech. With the C/73, Krupp moved to iron and steel carriages for the Prussian Army. The Material C/73 wasn't just a revolution for the breech; it was the end of the "wooden age" for Prussian field artillery.
The sharp 90-degree corners of the breech slot acted as "stress risers," where cracks would form and eventually cause the steel to unzip. Krupp introduced the cylindro-prismatic (half-round) breech. By rounding the back of the block, they eliminated those stress points, making the gun much safer for the crew.
The transition from the original C/73 to the C/73-88 and finally the C/73-91 represents a fascinating period where metallurgy had to catch up to the "Chemical Revolution" in explosives.
1888. It seems counter-intuitive that a more powerful powder (smokeless) allowed for a lighter gun, but it comes down to the Pressure Curve.
Black Powder exploded almost instantly, creating a massive, sharp "spike" of pressure right at the breech. The barrel had to be incredibly thick (and heavy) at the base to survive.
Smokeless Powder burned more slowly and "pushed" the shell down the barrel. This resulted in a lower peak pressure but a more sustained push. Krupp engineers realized they could shave weight off the barrel (lightening the tube) without risking a burst.
The 9cm C/73-88-91 was the "workhorse" that benefited most from these upgrades. By the time it was modernized with nickel steel in 1891, it was roughly 10-15% lighter than the 1873 original, making it significantly more mobile for horse-drawn batteries.
C/80: The Krupp C/80 (Construction 1880) arrived in 1880 as a modernized series primarily designed for the export market.
Steel Type and Construction The C/80 series utilized crucible cast steel (Gussstahl), but featured a more advanced structural design than the original C/73
Unlike the earlier solid-cast barrels, the C/80 used a central rifled tube reinforced with a steel hoop (or jacket) extending from the trunnions to the breech. Interestingly, for the domestic German 12 cm Kanone C/80 and the 9 cm Kanone C/79, Krupp actually melted down captured French bronze cannons from the 1870 war to use as material for some components, though the primary tubes remained steel.
The transition from Brittleness (Carbon Steel) to Toughness/Tenacity (Nickel Steel). In metallurgical terms, Krupp was moving from a material with high hardness but low impact strength to one with high ductility. This was the "Insurance Policy" of the 1890s.
Krupp pushed nickel steel on the C/80 (and the updated C/73-91), not to increase the range of a standard shrapnel shell, but to prevent premature detonation from destroying the gun.
Used black powder or low-order explosives. They didn't "shock" the steel as violently upon ignition. Carbon steel was perfectly adequate for these. High Explosives (Melanite/Picric Acid), were much more "brilliant" (faster detonation). If a shell had a tiny flaw or if the barrel was too brittle, the vibration or "set-back" force could cause the shell to explode inside the tube. Nickel steel provided tenacity. If a high-explosive shell did malfunction, a nickel-steel barrel was more likely to bulge or tear rather than shatter into thousands of lethal shards (shrapnel) that would kill the gun crew.
The C/80 Export stock typically featured a longer barrel (L/27 vs. L/24) for improved muzzle velocity.
It was built with a larger chamber specifically to accommodate the more powerful smokeless powder charges that were becoming standard in the 1880s. It featured a bolted steel plate box trail carriage instead of the older wooden or heavy iron-braced carriages, making it lighter and more durable for field use.
C/79, C/73/88 and the C/73/91 (Krupp Material Construction)
C/79: This was essentially a bronze-barreled variant of the 9 cm C/73. It was created primarily by melting down captured French bronze cannons after the Franco-Prussian War. It was used by the German Army as a fortress and siege gun and was typically mounted on a tall, narrow "box trail" carriage to fire over parapets.
C/80 Export Model: Although called an "8 cm" gun in the catalog (following German rounding conventions), it actually had a 75 mm bore. It featured a longer barrel (L/27) compared to the standard C/73 and was sold extensively to the Ottoman Empire and Balkan states.
K73/88: The suffix "/88" refers to the year 1888, when the gun underwent a critical modernization to adapt to technological advances in gunpowder.
The primary reason for the C/73-88 designation was the transition from traditional black powder to smokeless powder propellant. Because smokeless powder generates significantly higher internal pressures, the original C/73 steel barrels were replaced with a new, reinforced barrel designed to handle the increased stress.
The C/73-88 featured a lightened barrel compared to the original 1873 model, making it more maneuverable for field operations.
Limber and Carriage: Updates were also made to the supporting equipment. For example, the C/73-88 limber (Protze) featured a new box design that opened from the back rather than the top for faster ammunition access.
K73/91: This model represents the final major evolutionary step of the Krupp C/73 field gun. While it shared the same 88mm caliber as the original 1873 model, it featured a critical metallurgical upgrade to handle the "modern" explosives of the late 19th century.
The most important change was the introduction of a nickel-alloyed steel barrel in 1891.
This new barrel was designed specifically to prevent premature barrel explosions. Older steel and bronze barrels often shattered when firing new high-explosive shells filled with picric acid (lyddite/melinite), as the sensitive filler could detonate inside the tube.
Weight Reduction.The C/73-91 was the lightest in the series, with a combat weight of approximately 1,210 kg, compared to the 1,308 kg of the K73/88. It maintained a maximum range of approximately 6,500 to 7,100 meters and a muzzle velocity of 464 m/s.
C/80 Export Model: Although called an "8 cm" gun in the catalog (following German rounding conventions), it actually had a 75 mm bore. It featured a longer barrel (L/27) compared to the standard C/73 and was sold extensively to the Ottoman Empire and Balkan states.
K73/88: The suffix "/88" refers to the year 1888, when the gun underwent a critical modernization to adapt to technological advances in gunpowder.
The primary reason for the C/73-88 designation was the transition from traditional black powder to smokeless powder propellant. Because smokeless powder generates significantly higher internal pressures, the original C/73 steel barrels were replaced with a new, reinforced barrel designed to handle the increased stress.
The C/73-88 featured a lightened barrel compared to the original 1873 model, making it more maneuverable for field operations.
Limber and Carriage: Updates were also made to the supporting equipment. For example, the C/73-88 limber (Protze) featured a new box design that opened from the back rather than the top for faster ammunition access.
K73/91: This model represents the final major evolutionary step of the Krupp C/73 field gun. While it shared the same 88mm caliber as the original 1873 model, it featured a critical metallurgical upgrade to handle the "modern" explosives of the late 19th century.
The most important change was the introduction of a nickel-alloyed steel barrel in 1891.
This new barrel was designed specifically to prevent premature barrel explosions. Older steel and bronze barrels often shattered when firing new high-explosive shells filled with picric acid (lyddite/melinite), as the sensitive filler could detonate inside the tube.
Weight Reduction.The C/73-91 was the lightest in the series, with a combat weight of approximately 1,210 kg, compared to the 1,308 kg of the K73/88. It maintained a maximum range of approximately 6,500 to 7,100 meters and a muzzle velocity of 464 m/s.
C/89, C/91, C/96 and C/98
The final generation of "Rigid Carriage" krupp Artillery
C/89 and C/91 (The Transition to Smockless). These two are often grouped together because they represent the "Material Upgrade" era.
C/89: This was primarily an experimental and transitional phase. Krupp was testing nickel-steel and new breech shapes to handle the transition from brown powder to smokeless powder.
Transition to Nickel Steel
While the C/80 began with carbon-based crucible steel, many later variants (produced or updated after 1891) were transitioned to nickel steel to handle the higher pressures of smokeless powder. Nickel steel was a solution to a specific safety crisis, not necessarily a performance requirement for every shell.
The transition to Nickel Steel wasn't just about the powder; it was about the High Explosive (HE) shells. Before 1890, shells were filled with Black Powder, which is relatively "soft" and slow to ignite.
The new HE shells (using Picric Acid/Melinite) were extremely sensitive to the "shock of discharge."
If a standard carbon-steel barrel had even a tiny microscopic flaw, the intense vibration and pressure of smokeless powder would cause the barrel to "flex" unevenly. This flex would often detonate the sensitive HE shell inside the barrel, killing the crew. Nickel Steel provided the elasticity (toughness) needed to absorb those vibrations without fracturing.
C/91: This was the definitive material standard. The "91" refers to the adoption of Nickel-Steel. Any gun with a /91 suffix (like the K73/91) was rebuilt or newly manufactured with this stronger steel to prevent the barrel from bursting when firing high-explosive (Picric Acid) shells.
C/96 (The "Old" Standard), 7.7 cm FK 96 (Feldkanone 96): This was the last German field gun built without a modern recoil system. It was basically a highly refined C/73.
The "Recoil Revolution".
The French 75mm (1897) made the C/96 obsolete overnight because the French gun didn't move when fired, while the C/96 still jumped. This forced Krupp to modernize the C/96 into the FK 96 n.A. (neuer Art), which added the recoil cylinder and spade.
C/98 Export (The "Commercial" Model)
The C/98 was Krupp's most successful commercial export field gun before WWI.
It featured a limited recoil system (usually a spring-loaded spade on the trail rather than a full hydraulic cylinder).
Major Customer: The Boers (Orange Free State/Transvaal) famously used the 75mm C/98 against the British. It was also sold to many South American nations (Brazil, Chile) and the Ottoman Empire.
C/89 and C/91 (The Transition to Smockless). These two are often grouped together because they represent the "Material Upgrade" era.
C/89: This was primarily an experimental and transitional phase. Krupp was testing nickel-steel and new breech shapes to handle the transition from brown powder to smokeless powder.
Transition to Nickel Steel
While the C/80 began with carbon-based crucible steel, many later variants (produced or updated after 1891) were transitioned to nickel steel to handle the higher pressures of smokeless powder. Nickel steel was a solution to a specific safety crisis, not necessarily a performance requirement for every shell.
The transition to Nickel Steel wasn't just about the powder; it was about the High Explosive (HE) shells. Before 1890, shells were filled with Black Powder, which is relatively "soft" and slow to ignite.
The new HE shells (using Picric Acid/Melinite) were extremely sensitive to the "shock of discharge."
If a standard carbon-steel barrel had even a tiny microscopic flaw, the intense vibration and pressure of smokeless powder would cause the barrel to "flex" unevenly. This flex would often detonate the sensitive HE shell inside the barrel, killing the crew. Nickel Steel provided the elasticity (toughness) needed to absorb those vibrations without fracturing.
C/91: This was the definitive material standard. The "91" refers to the adoption of Nickel-Steel. Any gun with a /91 suffix (like the K73/91) was rebuilt or newly manufactured with this stronger steel to prevent the barrel from bursting when firing high-explosive (Picric Acid) shells.
C/96 (The "Old" Standard), 7.7 cm FK 96 (Feldkanone 96): This was the last German field gun built without a modern recoil system. It was basically a highly refined C/73.
The "Recoil Revolution".
The French 75mm (1897) made the C/96 obsolete overnight because the French gun didn't move when fired, while the C/96 still jumped. This forced Krupp to modernize the C/96 into the FK 96 n.A. (neuer Art), which added the recoil cylinder and spade.
C/98 Export (The "Commercial" Model)
The C/98 was Krupp's most successful commercial export field gun before WWI.
It featured a limited recoil system (usually a spring-loaded spade on the trail rather than a full hydraulic cylinder).
Major Customer: The Boers (Orange Free State/Transvaal) famously used the 75mm C/98 against the British. It was also sold to many South American nations (Brazil, Chile) and the Ottoman Empire.
Photo: Caras y Caretas from 1900s.
The Evolution of the Krupp Breech
C/61. Piston breech lock, (Wahrendorff = Replaced Old Model). A longitudinal bolt/piston secured by a transverse pin. Slow to operate and cumbersome; the pin was a major point of mechanical failure under high pressure.
C/64. Square Sliding or Double Wedge lock. A rectangular block that slid horizontally through the breech. Better than the piston, but the sharp 90° corners of the square slot created "stress risers" where cracks would form in the steel. Instead of one solid block from the old (Wahrendorff) C/61, the C/64 used two separate wedges that slid against each other.
C/73. Cylindro-Prismatic (Rundkeil) A "D-shaped" wedge (flat front, rounded back). This was the "Eureka" moment. The rounded back distributed the explosive force evenly, preventing the cracking seen in the C/64.
The cylindro-prismatic breech is fundamentally a horizontal sliding wedge; the "cylindro-prismatic" part just describes the specific D-shape of that wedge. NavWeaps clarifies that Krupp stayed loyal to this sliding action while other nations, like Britain and France, moved toward the interrupted screw.
C/89. The Modern Horizontal Sliding Wedge (M1902/06 and later such as 1909 Modelo Argentino), this is often called the Breech Ring (Bodenstück) or Breech Block Housing. Instead of cutting a hole all the way through, the barrel ends in a massive, square-shaped block of steel. The slot for the wedge is only open on one side (usually the right). The wedge slides into a "pocket." It hits a solid steel wall on the opposite side.
C/96. Horizontal Sliding wedge. By this stage, the square breech ring was standard, and the focus shifted to the single-motion lever and automatic extraction, defining the definitive modern horizontal sliding wedge system used in the 20th century
C/64. Square Sliding or Double Wedge lock. A rectangular block that slid horizontally through the breech. Better than the piston, but the sharp 90° corners of the square slot created "stress risers" where cracks would form in the steel. Instead of one solid block from the old (Wahrendorff) C/61, the C/64 used two separate wedges that slid against each other.
C/73. Cylindro-Prismatic (Rundkeil) A "D-shaped" wedge (flat front, rounded back). This was the "Eureka" moment. The rounded back distributed the explosive force evenly, preventing the cracking seen in the C/64.
The cylindro-prismatic breech is fundamentally a horizontal sliding wedge; the "cylindro-prismatic" part just describes the specific D-shape of that wedge. NavWeaps clarifies that Krupp stayed loyal to this sliding action while other nations, like Britain and France, moved toward the interrupted screw.
C/89. The Modern Horizontal Sliding Wedge (M1902/06 and later such as 1909 Modelo Argentino), this is often called the Breech Ring (Bodenstück) or Breech Block Housing. Instead of cutting a hole all the way through, the barrel ends in a massive, square-shaped block of steel. The slot for the wedge is only open on one side (usually the right). The wedge slides into a "pocket." It hits a solid steel wall on the opposite side.
C/96. Horizontal Sliding wedge. By this stage, the square breech ring was standard, and the focus shifted to the single-motion lever and automatic extraction, defining the definitive modern horizontal sliding wedge system used in the 20th century
The Rise of the House of Krupp (1938) by Bernhard Menne (Former Krupp Employee)
According to Bernhard Menne in his "Blood And Steel The Rise Of The House Of Krupp (1938)", Publisher: Lee Furman, Inc New York, The Argentine Artillery (Before WWI), was complete re-equipment with sixty batteries of modern
quickfiring guns pre-selected from several competitors: Armstrong, Vickers, Schneider, Ehrhardt and Krupp.
"Schneider vainly complained that Krupp was in the privileged position of being the only firm to give the Argentine gun crews preliminary instruction; that in the event of one of their guns bursting they were not, contrary to the
usual practice, automatically disqualified, but permitted to exchange the damaged gun and were not called upon to submit to a breaking test. Schneider complained also that one of Krupp's fitters had been caught red-handed, tampering with the brake mechanism of a gun which had been officially sealed by the Argentine officers". All the same, the artillery soldiers of South America considered Krupp to be the best from 1865 until WWI. The Paraguayan government before the War of Paraguay (1864), had ordered pieces from Krupp but never received them. In 1865 Argentina aquired its first Krupp cannon.
Towards the end of the XIX century and beginning of the XX century, Argentina and Chile had Krupp as their principal provider, while Peru was a monopoly almost exclusive to the French firm Schneider.
This arms competition ended with the Treaty of Versalles. In the Argentine case, it was the end of Krupp hegemony and the beginning of the Schneider in the post-WWI era. Argentina at the beginning of WWI no longer received arms of German origin until the arrival of FLAK 88 Krupp AA during WWII, but these did not arrive directly by contracts with Berlin but rather as surplus from the Spanish Civil War via Spain or Portugal. In the post-WWII era, the surplus artillery began to arrive from the allies, especially the USA and UK.
Blood and Steel. The Rise of the House of Krupp (1938) by Bernhard Menne. As a former Krupp employee who wrote the book in exile, Menne provided one of the first critical "insider" looks at how the firm manipulated global markets.
Menne details how Krupp simultaneously armed rival nations such as Russia, Japan, China, and the Ottoman Empire often using one country's order to incite "panic buys" from its neighbors.
He famously argued that Krupp made money twice, first by selling slightly inferior or "transitional" guns (like the C/64 or C/80), and then by selling the "necessary improvements" (like the C/96 or M1902) once the older models were rendered obsolete.
Menne was a socialist and a critic of the German industrial-military complex. This makes his book very different from the official "Krupp Jubilee" books published by the company itself.
quickfiring guns pre-selected from several competitors: Armstrong, Vickers, Schneider, Ehrhardt and Krupp.
"Schneider vainly complained that Krupp was in the privileged position of being the only firm to give the Argentine gun crews preliminary instruction; that in the event of one of their guns bursting they were not, contrary to the
usual practice, automatically disqualified, but permitted to exchange the damaged gun and were not called upon to submit to a breaking test. Schneider complained also that one of Krupp's fitters had been caught red-handed, tampering with the brake mechanism of a gun which had been officially sealed by the Argentine officers". All the same, the artillery soldiers of South America considered Krupp to be the best from 1865 until WWI. The Paraguayan government before the War of Paraguay (1864), had ordered pieces from Krupp but never received them. In 1865 Argentina aquired its first Krupp cannon.
Towards the end of the XIX century and beginning of the XX century, Argentina and Chile had Krupp as their principal provider, while Peru was a monopoly almost exclusive to the French firm Schneider.
This arms competition ended with the Treaty of Versalles. In the Argentine case, it was the end of Krupp hegemony and the beginning of the Schneider in the post-WWI era. Argentina at the beginning of WWI no longer received arms of German origin until the arrival of FLAK 88 Krupp AA during WWII, but these did not arrive directly by contracts with Berlin but rather as surplus from the Spanish Civil War via Spain or Portugal. In the post-WWII era, the surplus artillery began to arrive from the allies, especially the USA and UK.
Blood and Steel. The Rise of the House of Krupp (1938) by Bernhard Menne. As a former Krupp employee who wrote the book in exile, Menne provided one of the first critical "insider" looks at how the firm manipulated global markets.
Menne details how Krupp simultaneously armed rival nations such as Russia, Japan, China, and the Ottoman Empire often using one country's order to incite "panic buys" from its neighbors.
He famously argued that Krupp made money twice, first by selling slightly inferior or "transitional" guns (like the C/64 or C/80), and then by selling the "necessary improvements" (like the C/96 or M1902) once the older models were rendered obsolete.
Menne was a socialist and a critic of the German industrial-military complex. This makes his book very different from the official "Krupp Jubilee" books published by the company itself.
75mm L25.6 C/80 Argentina Models "1880/84".
Krupp 75mm. Photo: "Soldados 1848 - 1927".
C/80 FK 75mm. L.25.6: C/84 Export or dated. This was Argentina's "workhorse." While the German army used 8.8cm (9cm), Argentina standardized the 75mm (8cm) caliber for better logistics. These were initially carbon steel and used black powder.
C/80 GK 75mm L/13. Not confirmed, but it could be likely.
Theoretically since the C/73 these guns should have already left the factory with iron carriage, but it is possible that Argentina received both, the iron and a hybrid export model. (C/80 tubes with the old wooden C/64 carriage ?).
C/84 (C/80) export version in 75mm were the export version of what the German military designated as the 8 cm Kanone C/80. This 8cm was essentially a "deep modification" and evolutionary step up from the 9cm C/73 material.
It is possible and historically documented—that some C/84 export models were mounted on wooden carriages, including those of the C/67 style
At the time, 75mm was considered the perfect middle ground for field artillery. It was light enough for horse-drawn transport over the rugged terrain of the Andes (Argentina) or the Balkans (Greece/Romania mostly L/27), yet possessed enough "muzzle energy" to be effective against infantry in the open. While the L/27 was the "flagship" export length for the 8cm C/80, Argentina specifically opted for the L/25 barrel (approx. 1.87 meters) for their Model 1880 and 1884 field guns orders, (Should not be ruled out some C/80 Mountain variant with its original Krupp factory breech system).
While Krupp designated the technology as C/80 (Construction 1880), the Argentine Army actually finalized their major modernization and high-volume purchases in the 1890s specifically during the tensions with Chile. Probably by then, new Export batches of 75mm C/98 L/28 field gun FK (FeldKanone) and C/98 75mm L/13 mountain GK (GebirgsKanone) guns were purchased from the Krupp factory, already modified with the Maxim-Nordenfelt breech system.
C/80 GK 75mm L/13. Not confirmed, but it could be likely.
Theoretically since the C/73 these guns should have already left the factory with iron carriage, but it is possible that Argentina received both, the iron and a hybrid export model. (C/80 tubes with the old wooden C/64 carriage ?).
C/84 (C/80) export version in 75mm were the export version of what the German military designated as the 8 cm Kanone C/80. This 8cm was essentially a "deep modification" and evolutionary step up from the 9cm C/73 material.
It is possible and historically documented—that some C/84 export models were mounted on wooden carriages, including those of the C/67 style
At the time, 75mm was considered the perfect middle ground for field artillery. It was light enough for horse-drawn transport over the rugged terrain of the Andes (Argentina) or the Balkans (Greece/Romania mostly L/27), yet possessed enough "muzzle energy" to be effective against infantry in the open. While the L/27 was the "flagship" export length for the 8cm C/80, Argentina specifically opted for the L/25 barrel (approx. 1.87 meters) for their Model 1880 and 1884 field guns orders, (Should not be ruled out some C/80 Mountain variant with its original Krupp factory breech system).
While Krupp designated the technology as C/80 (Construction 1880), the Argentine Army actually finalized their major modernization and high-volume purchases in the 1890s specifically during the tensions with Chile. Probably by then, new Export batches of 75mm C/98 L/28 field gun FK (FeldKanone) and C/98 75mm L/13 mountain GK (GebirgsKanone) guns were purchased from the Krupp factory, already modified with the Maxim-Nordenfelt breech system.
Krupp battery of 75mm C/80. Photo from the book "Universal Military Service in Argentina" by George Marvin
Oscar Sellström, Thorsten Nordenfelt and Hiram Maxim
Selstrom-Nordenfelt was the early breech designs associated with Thorsten Nordenfelt's original company before the 1888 merger. In Argentine records for the 75mm L23 Modelo 1898, "Selstrom" (sometimes spelled Sellström) refers to the specific screw-block patent used to modify or equip those Krupp barrels.
Maxim-Nordenfelt was formed after Hiram Maxim merged with Nordenfelt in 1888. Most Argentine documents use "Maxim-Nordenfelt" as a catch-all term for the breech systems on the Modelo 1884/1898 guns because the company was known by that name when many of the modifications were performed.
The Welin-type and the Selstrom-Nordenfelt screw-disk system, while both are types of interrupted screw breeches, they utilize fundamentally different mechanical locking principles. The Welin features threads cut at different radii (steps). When the block is inserted and rotated, multiple levels of threads engage simultaneously.
The Selstrom-Nordenfelt (or Maxim-Nordenfelt) is often referred to as a "screw-disk" or interrupted screw-block system that predates the widespread use of the Welin in smaller field guns.
Maxim-Nordenfelt was formed after Hiram Maxim merged with Nordenfelt in 1888. Most Argentine documents use "Maxim-Nordenfelt" as a catch-all term for the breech systems on the Modelo 1884/1898 guns because the company was known by that name when many of the modifications were performed.
The Welin-type and the Selstrom-Nordenfelt screw-disk system, while both are types of interrupted screw breeches, they utilize fundamentally different mechanical locking principles. The Welin features threads cut at different radii (steps). When the block is inserted and rotated, multiple levels of threads engage simultaneously.
The Selstrom-Nordenfelt (or Maxim-Nordenfelt) is often referred to as a "screw-disk" or interrupted screw-block system that predates the widespread use of the Welin in smaller field guns.
Type C/73 78.5mm "Model 1881 Viejobueno - Bronze Construction".
This is the first breech loading cannon fabricated in Argentina. Photo: Carlos Turone "2nd Patricios of Obligado Battalion".
In 1879, General Domingo Viejobueno, then president of the commission for army modernization, reached an agreement with the German manufacturer Krupp to modernize Argentina's field batteries.
While Argentina purchased many guns from Krupp, Viejobueno also directed the domestic production of bronze rifled cannons using the Krupp system. These guns were manufactured at the Esteban de Luca Arsenal in Buenos Aires during the 1880s.
These pieces are technically identified as having a 78.5 mm caliber. In historical records and casual military parlance, they were often generically (and somewhat incorrectly) referred to as either 75 mm or 80 mm guns.
The design was based on the Krupp 8 cm Kanone C/73, which despite its "8 cm" designation in the Krupp catalog, actually used a 78.5 mm bore.
To determine the length of the case for the 78.5 mm "Viejobueno", we have to look at the transition in ammunition technology between 1880 and 1890. Because the Viejobueno was a domestic copy of the Krupp C/73 system, it originally did not use a brass case in the way modern artillery does.
It was a hybrid because it used ancient material (bronze) but with modern features (rifling and a breech-loading system).
While it seems like a step backward to use bronze in 1880, the Viejobueno guns were definitely rifled. Even though the barrel was made of bronze, the Esteban de Luca Arsenal used precision machinery to cut 24 grooves (rifling) into the bore.
The core of the program was to modernize the Krupp Model 1880 and earlier models to withstand the harsh conditions of the Argentine frontier. In the early 1880s, border tensions between Argentina and Chile reached a critical point, primarily due to overlapping claims over Patagonia, the Strait of Magellan, and Tierra del Fuego. These disputes were nearly escalated into war but were largely de-escalated through diplomacy as both nations faced internal and external pressures.
The Argentina–Chile border is the longest international border in South America and the third longest in the world.
In 1879, General Domingo Viejobueno, then president of the commission for army modernization, reached an agreement with the German manufacturer Krupp to modernize Argentina's field batteries.
While Argentina purchased many guns from Krupp, Viejobueno also directed the domestic production of bronze rifled cannons using the Krupp system. These guns were manufactured at the Esteban de Luca Arsenal in Buenos Aires during the 1880s.
These pieces are technically identified as having a 78.5 mm caliber. In historical records and casual military parlance, they were often generically (and somewhat incorrectly) referred to as either 75 mm or 80 mm guns.
The design was based on the Krupp 8 cm Kanone C/73, which despite its "8 cm" designation in the Krupp catalog, actually used a 78.5 mm bore.
To determine the length of the case for the 78.5 mm "Viejobueno", we have to look at the transition in ammunition technology between 1880 and 1890. Because the Viejobueno was a domestic copy of the Krupp C/73 system, it originally did not use a brass case in the way modern artillery does.
It was a hybrid because it used ancient material (bronze) but with modern features (rifling and a breech-loading system).
While it seems like a step backward to use bronze in 1880, the Viejobueno guns were definitely rifled. Even though the barrel was made of bronze, the Esteban de Luca Arsenal used precision machinery to cut 24 grooves (rifling) into the bore.
The core of the program was to modernize the Krupp Model 1880 and earlier models to withstand the harsh conditions of the Argentine frontier. In the early 1880s, border tensions between Argentina and Chile reached a critical point, primarily due to overlapping claims over Patagonia, the Strait of Magellan, and Tierra del Fuego. These disputes were nearly escalated into war but were largely de-escalated through diplomacy as both nations faced internal and external pressures.
The Argentina–Chile border is the longest international border in South America and the third longest in the world.
Krupp's Cylindro-Prismatic breech system. The carriage plate says: "Parque de Artilleria 1882".. This is outside of the Museo de Armas de la Nacion. Many thanks to Oscar Turone for sharing these images with us.
While it may seem counterintuitive to use a 78.5 mm caliber when a 75 mm standard existed, this specific "Viejobueno" caliber (78.5 mm) was actually the native Krupp standard of that era, which Argentina had adopted before the 75 mm became the dominant global standard. The confusion stems from how Krupp categorized its guns versus how the Argentine military labeled them.
In the 1870s and early 1880s, Krupp classified its field guns as 8 cm. However, the actual bore diameter for these "8 cm" guns was 78.5 mm. The C/73 Model was the primary German field gun when General Domingo Viejobueno initiated domestic production at the Esteban de Luca Arsenal in 1880, he followed the exact specifications of the Krupp system he was modernizing, which at that time was the 78.5 mm (8 cm) design.
In historical documents and even museum displays, these 78.5 mm Viejobueno guns are frequently misidentified as 75 mm or 80 mm pieces because they were "close enough" to the emerging standards of the late 19th century.
Ultimately, the 78.5 mm wasn't a choice to deviate from a standard it was the result of building a domestic version of the state-of-the-art German caliber of that specific year (1880), just before the 75 mm became the universal standard for field artillery.
Pablo Ricchieri authorized the purchase of 5,000 Gewehr 88 (Commission Rifles) in 1892, which used the 7.92×57mm caliber a different standard than the 7.65mm Mauser. This diversification in Argentina, specifically the 78.5mm artillery and 7.92mm rifles was not a "mistake" of the time, but rather a reflection of geopolitical urgency and the evolving state of arms technology in the late 19th century. when national security was at stake, industrial capacity and immediate availability trumped ballistic preference.
* Within a few years, Argentina looked for a way to get rid of them. They eventually sold the entire lot to the Peruvian government. This is why many "Argentine" Gewehr 88s found today actually bear Peruvian markings or history.
While it may seem counterintuitive to use a 78.5 mm caliber when a 75 mm standard existed, this specific "Viejobueno" caliber (78.5 mm) was actually the native Krupp standard of that era, which Argentina had adopted before the 75 mm became the dominant global standard. The confusion stems from how Krupp categorized its guns versus how the Argentine military labeled them.
In the 1870s and early 1880s, Krupp classified its field guns as 8 cm. However, the actual bore diameter for these "8 cm" guns was 78.5 mm. The C/73 Model was the primary German field gun when General Domingo Viejobueno initiated domestic production at the Esteban de Luca Arsenal in 1880, he followed the exact specifications of the Krupp system he was modernizing, which at that time was the 78.5 mm (8 cm) design.
In historical documents and even museum displays, these 78.5 mm Viejobueno guns are frequently misidentified as 75 mm or 80 mm pieces because they were "close enough" to the emerging standards of the late 19th century.
Ultimately, the 78.5 mm wasn't a choice to deviate from a standard it was the result of building a domestic version of the state-of-the-art German caliber of that specific year (1880), just before the 75 mm became the universal standard for field artillery.
Pablo Ricchieri authorized the purchase of 5,000 Gewehr 88 (Commission Rifles) in 1892, which used the 7.92×57mm caliber a different standard than the 7.65mm Mauser. This diversification in Argentina, specifically the 78.5mm artillery and 7.92mm rifles was not a "mistake" of the time, but rather a reflection of geopolitical urgency and the evolving state of arms technology in the late 19th century. when national security was at stake, industrial capacity and immediate availability trumped ballistic preference.
* Within a few years, Argentina looked for a way to get rid of them. They eventually sold the entire lot to the Peruvian government. This is why many "Argentine" Gewehr 88s found today actually bear Peruvian markings or history.
Modifications, Uprade and reuse of Krupp's artillery.
On the left is Major Adolfo Baisi who designed the slide rule for the Krupp 1909. Curiously, Adolfo Baisi was the father of Alfredo Baisi, designer of the DL43 tank, a machine that utilized a Krupp 1909 cannon as its principal arms. The Major on the right is Francisco Velez who developped or improved the systems for range and accuracy in rapid fire cannons. Source: Photo: Caras y Caretas 1913.
General Adolfo Baisi was instrumental in overseeing the technical transition of the older Krupp 75mm and 105mm parks. He advocated for the "nationalization" of maintenance, ensuring that Argentine arsenals could perform the complex breech conversions (such as the Maxim-Nordenfelt upgrades) without returning pieces to Germany.
During the 1920s and 1930s, he served in high-ranking positions within the Arsenales de Guerra, where he managed the logistics of the Model 1902 and 1909 Krupp contracts. His work ensured that these heavy guns were paired with appropriate Argentine-sourced equipment, like locally designed ammunition limbers.
The 130mm and 155mm Heavy Park
He was a key figure in the operational deployment of the heavy Krupp pieces, specifically managing the specialized transport requirements for the 130mm L/26 M1902.
He authored several technical manuals and artillery doctrines that defined how the Argentine Army utilized its German-sourced hardware, focusing on the ballistic performance of Krupp steel under South American environmental conditions.
His legacy was the creation of a self-sufficient technical infrastructure that allowed his son, the younger Alfredo Baisi, to later have the "industrial muscle" (like the Esteban de Luca Arsenal) necessary to build the Nahuel tank using those same repurposed Krupp barrels.
General Adolfo Baisi was instrumental in overseeing the technical transition of the older Krupp 75mm and 105mm parks. He advocated for the "nationalization" of maintenance, ensuring that Argentine arsenals could perform the complex breech conversions (such as the Maxim-Nordenfelt upgrades) without returning pieces to Germany.
During the 1920s and 1930s, he served in high-ranking positions within the Arsenales de Guerra, where he managed the logistics of the Model 1902 and 1909 Krupp contracts. His work ensured that these heavy guns were paired with appropriate Argentine-sourced equipment, like locally designed ammunition limbers.
The 130mm and 155mm Heavy Park
He was a key figure in the operational deployment of the heavy Krupp pieces, specifically managing the specialized transport requirements for the 130mm L/26 M1902.
He authored several technical manuals and artillery doctrines that defined how the Argentine Army utilized its German-sourced hardware, focusing on the ballistic performance of Krupp steel under South American environmental conditions.
His legacy was the creation of a self-sufficient technical infrastructure that allowed his son, the younger Alfredo Baisi, to later have the "industrial muscle" (like the Esteban de Luca Arsenal) necessary to build the Nahuel tank using those same repurposed Krupp barrels.
The Argentine military arsenals were highly active in modifying and repurposing Krupp artillery to extend its service life or adapt it to new tactical roles. The most significant modifications involved modernization of breech systems and radical carriage changes.
Breech System Modernization (1898)
The most widespread modification was the replacement of the original Krupp sliding-wedge breech blocks for the Maxim-Nordenfelt system. This upgrade, performed in the late 1890s, significantly increased the rate of fire, allowing these older guns to remain competitive into the 20th century.
Carriage Replacement (Late 1920s)
The Argentine Arsenals performed a major overhaul of the Krupp 75mm Model 1909 by replacing the original carriage with a "boxtrail" type carriage. This modification only reused the original barrel, Welin breech block, and recoil brake, effectively creating a hybrid weapon tailored to Argentine requirements.
Anti-Aircraft Conversion (1927)
Arsenals attempted to create anti-aircraft guns by mounting the barrel of a Krupp C/80 modification 1898 (fitted with a Maxim-Nordenfelt breech) onto a new mount with added recoil absorption and equilibrators.
Infantry Gun (1945)
In the mid-1940s, the Río Tercero Military Factory created the "Matorras" 75mm L/13 infantry gun by taking the barrels from old Model 1898 mountain guns and mounting them on newly designed carriages with modern brake and recuperator systems.
Modernizing Mobility
Older guns, including some 75mm models, were modified for mechanized transport by adding buffer systems to the trails and replacing traditional wooden wheels with pneumatic tires for towing by trucks or tractors.
Indigenous Production
In the late 1870s, General Domingo Viejobueno led a commission that produced the first national bronze rifled cannons using a modified Krupp-style system fabricated within Argentina.
During the 1940s, the Arsenal Esteban de Luca in Buenos Aires was the primary facility responsible for modifying existing field artillery into the main armament for Argentina's first indigenous medium tank DL-43.
For kinetic reasons, the 75mm L30 M1909 (Krupp) was generally inferior to the Sherman’s 75mm M3 gun in terms of anti-tank performance.The Krupp gun suffered from lower values in both mass and velocity.
US 75mm M3: Achieved a muzzle velocity of 619 m/s.
Krupp 75mm M1909: As a field gun, its muzzle velocity was typically around 510 m/s.
Note: The 75mm Bofors was handled differently because, unlike the Krupp 1909, it was not the primary solution for the DL43 tank due to scarcity and its superior ballistics. But while the Krupp 75mm M1909 was modified in large numbers from existing field artillery stocks to arm the 12 tanks, the Bofors situation had distinct characteristics and design.
The 75mm Bofors L/40 (specifically the Model 1935/38 types used in Argentina) was very comparable to the US 75mm M3 gun found on the M4 Sherman, and in some ballistics categories, it was actually superior. Although Argentina had a significant order of Bofors 75mm M1935 guns (L/40), many were under embargo in Sweden when WWII broke out. The few available in Argentina were prioritized for the anti-aircraft and field artillery roles rather than being stripped for the Nahuel.
Breech System Modernization (1898)
The most widespread modification was the replacement of the original Krupp sliding-wedge breech blocks for the Maxim-Nordenfelt system. This upgrade, performed in the late 1890s, significantly increased the rate of fire, allowing these older guns to remain competitive into the 20th century.
Carriage Replacement (Late 1920s)
The Argentine Arsenals performed a major overhaul of the Krupp 75mm Model 1909 by replacing the original carriage with a "boxtrail" type carriage. This modification only reused the original barrel, Welin breech block, and recoil brake, effectively creating a hybrid weapon tailored to Argentine requirements.
Anti-Aircraft Conversion (1927)
Arsenals attempted to create anti-aircraft guns by mounting the barrel of a Krupp C/80 modification 1898 (fitted with a Maxim-Nordenfelt breech) onto a new mount with added recoil absorption and equilibrators.
Infantry Gun (1945)
In the mid-1940s, the Río Tercero Military Factory created the "Matorras" 75mm L/13 infantry gun by taking the barrels from old Model 1898 mountain guns and mounting them on newly designed carriages with modern brake and recuperator systems.
Modernizing Mobility
Older guns, including some 75mm models, were modified for mechanized transport by adding buffer systems to the trails and replacing traditional wooden wheels with pneumatic tires for towing by trucks or tractors.
Indigenous Production
In the late 1870s, General Domingo Viejobueno led a commission that produced the first national bronze rifled cannons using a modified Krupp-style system fabricated within Argentina.
During the 1940s, the Arsenal Esteban de Luca in Buenos Aires was the primary facility responsible for modifying existing field artillery into the main armament for Argentina's first indigenous medium tank DL-43.
For kinetic reasons, the 75mm L30 M1909 (Krupp) was generally inferior to the Sherman’s 75mm M3 gun in terms of anti-tank performance.The Krupp gun suffered from lower values in both mass and velocity.
US 75mm M3: Achieved a muzzle velocity of 619 m/s.
Krupp 75mm M1909: As a field gun, its muzzle velocity was typically around 510 m/s.
Note: The 75mm Bofors was handled differently because, unlike the Krupp 1909, it was not the primary solution for the DL43 tank due to scarcity and its superior ballistics. But while the Krupp 75mm M1909 was modified in large numbers from existing field artillery stocks to arm the 12 tanks, the Bofors situation had distinct characteristics and design.
The 75mm Bofors L/40 (specifically the Model 1935/38 types used in Argentina) was very comparable to the US 75mm M3 gun found on the M4 Sherman, and in some ballistics categories, it was actually superior. Although Argentina had a significant order of Bofors 75mm M1935 guns (L/40), many were under embargo in Sweden when WWII broke out. The few available in Argentina were prioritized for the anti-aircraft and field artillery roles rather than being stripped for the Nahuel.
Primary Arsenals and Facilities
Arsenal Principal de Guerra (Buenos Aires). The central hub for weapons and ammunition. It was historically located in the San Telmo neighborhood (specifically the Casa de Esteban de Luca on Carlos Calvo street) and was the site where many early Krupp modifications occurred.
Arsenal Esteban de Luca (Constitución).
Named after the weapons engineer and poet, this facility was a well-equipped unit that manufactured various military equipment, including horse carts and saddles. In the 1880s, it produced small numbers of the 78.5 mm "Viejobueno" field gun. It served as a critical repair and storage facility for the army until the mid-20th century.
Arsenal San Lorenzo (Puerto Borghi)
Established as a specialized facility to support northern operations, it eventually became a stockpile and logistics battalion.
Arsenal José María Rojas (Holmberg)
A major facility focused on supporting southern and central operations, often handling heavy material and stockpiles.
Fábrica Militar de Aceros (Military Steel Factory)
While not an "arsenal" by name, this and other facilities under the Dirección General de Fabricaciones Militares (established later) took over the industrial manufacturing role from the traditional arsenals.
The Arsenales de la Nación in the Palomar/Boulogne area later became the modern headquarters for logistics. Today, the Arsenal Battalion 601 "Esteban de Luca" in Boulogne Sur Mer is the direct successor to these historical institutions.
Arsenal Esteban de Luca (Constitución).
Named after the weapons engineer and poet, this facility was a well-equipped unit that manufactured various military equipment, including horse carts and saddles. In the 1880s, it produced small numbers of the 78.5 mm "Viejobueno" field gun. It served as a critical repair and storage facility for the army until the mid-20th century.
Arsenal San Lorenzo (Puerto Borghi)
Established as a specialized facility to support northern operations, it eventually became a stockpile and logistics battalion.
Arsenal José María Rojas (Holmberg)
A major facility focused on supporting southern and central operations, often handling heavy material and stockpiles.
Fábrica Militar de Aceros (Military Steel Factory)
While not an "arsenal" by name, this and other facilities under the Dirección General de Fabricaciones Militares (established later) took over the industrial manufacturing role from the traditional arsenals.
The Arsenales de la Nación in the Palomar/Boulogne area later became the modern headquarters for logistics. Today, the Arsenal Battalion 601 "Esteban de Luca" in Boulogne Sur Mer is the direct successor to these historical institutions.
The Modernization Samples (Test Samples)
75mm L/27 C/89 Krupp (Argentina Test Model 1891)
C/89 (Experimental): Argentina received samples of these to test nickel-steel durability and the new rapid-action breeches. These tests were critical before they committed to the massive 1898 order.
The 7.5 cm Krupp Model 1891 (often associated with the 1889/1891 modernization) used by the Argentine Army, represents the peak of the C/80 generation technology in the Army, right before the jump to the 1896/1902 "Rapid Fire" era. While it shares the "DNA" of the C/80, the Argentine 1891 model (Like the Mauser 81) had several distinct features that set it apart from the "standard" C/80 field guns sold to other nations like Turkey or Greece. The Krupp 1891 (C/89), provided the artillery with the Square Breech Ring (Bodenstück) and the long L/27 barrel.
The trail Handle (or palanca, manejera in some Spanish-language manuals) and the Spade Lever. On rigid-carriage Krupp models like the 1889/1891 L/27, these parts served two critical tactical functions, since these older carriages were "rigid" (meaning the barrel was fixed directly to the frame without an internal recoil or traversing gear), the only way to aim the gun left or right was to physically pick up and pivot the entire carriage. The crew used these handles to heave the 1-ton weapon into position.
The lever located near the spade (the "blade" that digs into the ground) was used to engage or disengage the ground spur. Because the gun would jump backward several feet when fired, this lever allowed the crew to quickly "unlock" the trail from the earth so they could push it back to its original firing line after each shot.
After 1898, Krupp was forced to modernize its entire catalog to include long-recoil systems following the revolutionary appearance of the French 75mm Mle 1897. Prior to this, Krupp's guns were "rigid" (they jumped back upon firing), but the models introduced after 1902 featured integrated recoil brakes and recuperators.
The addition of the recoil system and the armored shield were the two "game-changers" that defined the Quick-Firing (QF) era for Krupp guns after 1898.
Note:The Krupp 75mm M1889 (often listed in Argentine records as the Krupp de 75 mm de tiro rápido, modelo 1889) was a transitional piece that never saw mass adoption.
The 7.5 cm Krupp Model 1891 (often associated with the 1889/1891 modernization) used by the Argentine Army, represents the peak of the C/80 generation technology in the Army, right before the jump to the 1896/1902 "Rapid Fire" era. While it shares the "DNA" of the C/80, the Argentine 1891 model (Like the Mauser 81) had several distinct features that set it apart from the "standard" C/80 field guns sold to other nations like Turkey or Greece. The Krupp 1891 (C/89), provided the artillery with the Square Breech Ring (Bodenstück) and the long L/27 barrel.
The trail Handle (or palanca, manejera in some Spanish-language manuals) and the Spade Lever. On rigid-carriage Krupp models like the 1889/1891 L/27, these parts served two critical tactical functions, since these older carriages were "rigid" (meaning the barrel was fixed directly to the frame without an internal recoil or traversing gear), the only way to aim the gun left or right was to physically pick up and pivot the entire carriage. The crew used these handles to heave the 1-ton weapon into position.
The lever located near the spade (the "blade" that digs into the ground) was used to engage or disengage the ground spur. Because the gun would jump backward several feet when fired, this lever allowed the crew to quickly "unlock" the trail from the earth so they could push it back to its original firing line after each shot.
After 1898, Krupp was forced to modernize its entire catalog to include long-recoil systems following the revolutionary appearance of the French 75mm Mle 1897. Prior to this, Krupp's guns were "rigid" (they jumped back upon firing), but the models introduced after 1902 featured integrated recoil brakes and recuperators.
The addition of the recoil system and the armored shield were the two "game-changers" that defined the Quick-Firing (QF) era for Krupp guns after 1898.
Note:The Krupp 75mm M1889 (often listed in Argentine records as the Krupp de 75 mm de tiro rápido, modelo 1889) was a transitional piece that never saw mass adoption.
75mm L24 Model 1896 (Argentina Test Rapid Fire Era)
C/96 (Evaluation): Argentina looked at the standard German C/96 (7.7cm) but ultimately rejected the German sliding-wedge breech in favor of the Maxim-Nordenfelt screw breech for their final contract.
There is a rare Krupp Model 1896 (nA) marked "Essen 1905" with the interrupted screw breech. Unlike the standard C/96 Krupp breech, this "1905" evaluation gun was factory fitted with a Welin type interrupted screw breech.
Argentina was specifically studying if the Welin system popular in heavy naval guns would be more efficient for their new field artillery standard than the traditional Krupp wedge.
*Krupp artillery pieces manufactured for the Spanish government during the late 19th century were typically marked with
"Fried. Krupp, A.G. Essen" or similar variations identifying the factory location in Germany.
If Argentina analyzed the interrupted screw system, probably it was the same stock that Krupp manufactured for Spain and used in the Spanish-American War. And if in 1905 they tried this factory " sample ," it was to decide on the big purchase of the 1903 models in 1909 with Welin system.
Spain had purchased the Krupp 75mm Model L/24 1896 in significant numbers. These were used during the Spanish-American War (1898) in Cuba and the Philippines. The Spanish 1896 models were among the first to feature the interrupted screw breech (though not yet the fully refined Welin pattern) instead of the traditional Krupp sliding wedge.
Argentine military observers closely studied the Spanish-American War. They saw that the Spanish Krupp guns, despite the eventual defeat, were technically superior in rate of fire to many older systems because of their breech design.
In German artillery nomenclature,"nA" (often written as n.A.) stands for neue Art, which literally translates to "new model" or "new pattern".
There is a rare Krupp Model 1896 (nA) marked "Essen 1905" with the interrupted screw breech. Unlike the standard C/96 Krupp breech, this "1905" evaluation gun was factory fitted with a Welin type interrupted screw breech.
Argentina was specifically studying if the Welin system popular in heavy naval guns would be more efficient for their new field artillery standard than the traditional Krupp wedge.
*Krupp artillery pieces manufactured for the Spanish government during the late 19th century were typically marked with
"Fried. Krupp, A.G. Essen" or similar variations identifying the factory location in Germany.
If Argentina analyzed the interrupted screw system, probably it was the same stock that Krupp manufactured for Spain and used in the Spanish-American War. And if in 1905 they tried this factory " sample ," it was to decide on the big purchase of the 1903 models in 1909 with Welin system.
Spain had purchased the Krupp 75mm Model L/24 1896 in significant numbers. These were used during the Spanish-American War (1898) in Cuba and the Philippines. The Spanish 1896 models were among the first to feature the interrupted screw breech (though not yet the fully refined Welin pattern) instead of the traditional Krupp sliding wedge.
Argentine military observers closely studied the Spanish-American War. They saw that the Spanish Krupp guns, despite the eventual defeat, were technically superior in rate of fire to many older systems because of their breech design.
In German artillery nomenclature,"nA" (often written as n.A.) stands for neue Art, which literally translates to "new model" or "new pattern".
75mm L/28 C/98 Krupp FK FeldKanone. Field Gun (Modelo Argentino 1898)
The Krupp 7.5 cm Modelo 1898 was a pivotal field gun in Argentine service, representing a customized "hybrid" design that bridged the gap between old rigid-carriage guns and modern quick-firing artillery. It is most notable for its L/28 barrel length and the use of a non-Krupp breech system.
This model was unique because Argentina rejected the standard Krupp sliding-wedge breech in favor of a British-designed mechanism.
Barrel Length: L/28 (28 calibers), which provided a balance between range and maneuverability.
Breech Mechanism: Maxim-Nordenfelt eccentric screw system. This choice was influenced by Argentine naval standards and a belief that the screw system was more reliable for rapid fire than the contemporary Krupp wedge.
Material: Constructed from nickel steel to safely handle the high pressures of smokeless powder and the sensitive high-explosive (HE) "Universal shells" adopted by Argentina.
Recoil System: It featured a spring-loaded spade brake on the trail. While not a full hydraulic recoil system like the later Modelo 1909, it significantly reduced the distance the gun jumped back, allowing for a faster rate of fire than the older C/80.
The M1898 was purchased during a period of intense military tension with Chile.
Note: Some sources say that old C/80/84 were modernized by changing the old cylindro-prismatic Breech system for the Maxim-Nordenfelt breech system. But taking into account that the modification of the C/98s was carried out by Krupp in Germany, this would mean that the tubes had to be sent to Germany, which is unlikely. It is possible that if such an upgrade had taken place, it should have been made in the Argentine arsenals.
Photo: "Soldados 1848 - 1927".
This model was unique because Argentina rejected the standard Krupp sliding-wedge breech in favor of a British-designed mechanism.
Barrel Length: L/28 (28 calibers), which provided a balance between range and maneuverability.
Breech Mechanism: Maxim-Nordenfelt eccentric screw system. This choice was influenced by Argentine naval standards and a belief that the screw system was more reliable for rapid fire than the contemporary Krupp wedge.
Material: Constructed from nickel steel to safely handle the high pressures of smokeless powder and the sensitive high-explosive (HE) "Universal shells" adopted by Argentina.
Recoil System: It featured a spring-loaded spade brake on the trail. While not a full hydraulic recoil system like the later Modelo 1909, it significantly reduced the distance the gun jumped back, allowing for a faster rate of fire than the older C/80.
The M1898 was purchased during a period of intense military tension with Chile.
Note: Some sources say that old C/80/84 were modernized by changing the old cylindro-prismatic Breech system for the Maxim-Nordenfelt breech system. But taking into account that the modification of the C/98s was carried out by Krupp in Germany, this would mean that the tubes had to be sent to Germany, which is unlikely. It is possible that if such an upgrade had taken place, it should have been made in the Argentine arsenals.
Photo: "Soldados 1848 - 1927".
|
Soldados 1848 - 1927 is a specialized historical and photographic book documenting the evolution of military forces, primarily focusing on Argentina. Published in 2001, it features a collection of historical images and research contributed by several prominent authors and historians.
Soldados, 1848-1927: Sergio Toyos; Miguel Angel Cuarterolo; Andreas Angel Voskos. |
Argentina was one of the few nations to fully adopt the Krupp Universal shell, which combined HE and shrapnel capabilities into a single projectile.
The image shows Lt Col Fritz (Friedrich) Von der Goltz (Son of the famous Von der Goltz) inspecting a 75mm Krupp C//96 type gun with Maxin-Nordenfelt breech and a tangent scale, optical sight base located near the middle/rear of the barrel rather than on the carriage itself. This "lift and look" method was necessary because the gun lacked a recoil system; the entire piece would jump back upon firing, requiring the gunners to reset and re-aim using the barrel-mounted sights. This man represented Krupp in the sale of Model 1903 (Argentine 1909) to Argentina.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1910.
Photo: Caras y Caretas 1910.
75mm L/13 C/98 GK Gebirgskanone Mountain Gun (Modelo Argentino 1898)
7.5cm L/13 C/98 Krupp. The weapon is consistently referred to as a mountain gun in historical sources and official documentation, such as the Spanish Ministry of War's 1896 "Artillery memorandum-book". The primary intent of its design a short barrel and ability to be disassembled for transport by mules) points to a mountain gun role, suitable for direct fire in difficult terrain, rather than the high-angle, indirect fire role of a howitzer.
While the German Army used the sliding-block breech with cased charges for its 7.5 Gebirgskanone c/80 with its original horizontal sliding wedge breech (Krupp), the Argentine C/98 Model used the Maxim-Nordenfelt screw breech.
It should not be ruled out that some L/13 has arrived in 1880s with the same batch of the Field guns C/80/84 (Cylindro prismatic breech) and that they have been modified later.
Gebirgskanone C/64 and C/67 in the Paraguay War, but not as Mountain guns.
75mm C/67 Gebirskanone. It may have been the first (Primer cañon de montaña) acquired by Argentina during the War of the Triple Alliance. The C/67 were the export version of the Prussian C/64 design, and they featured the transitional Rundkeil-Verschluss (round-back breech). The previous C/64 used a square sliding wedge. Because the slot cut into the steel barrel had sharp 90-degree corners, the immense pressure of firing created "stress risers" at those points. This led to micro-fractures and, eventually, catastrophic barrel bursts.
Most likely they arrived with wooden carriages. In the context of the War of the Triple Alliance, "Mountain" (Gebirgs) hardware was often chosen not for altitude, but for mobility in extreme terrain.
Around 1865 batch:
10 - 75mm L/13 Mountain Gun (Gebirgskanone) C/64, double wedge (Kreiner system) breech.
Around 1870 batch:
11 - 75mm L/13 (Gebirgskanone) C/67, round-Back (Cylindro-Prismatic) Wedge breech.
While the German Army used the sliding-block breech with cased charges for its 7.5 Gebirgskanone c/80 with its original horizontal sliding wedge breech (Krupp), the Argentine C/98 Model used the Maxim-Nordenfelt screw breech.
It should not be ruled out that some L/13 has arrived in 1880s with the same batch of the Field guns C/80/84 (Cylindro prismatic breech) and that they have been modified later.
Gebirgskanone C/64 and C/67 in the Paraguay War, but not as Mountain guns.
75mm C/67 Gebirskanone. It may have been the first (Primer cañon de montaña) acquired by Argentina during the War of the Triple Alliance. The C/67 were the export version of the Prussian C/64 design, and they featured the transitional Rundkeil-Verschluss (round-back breech). The previous C/64 used a square sliding wedge. Because the slot cut into the steel barrel had sharp 90-degree corners, the immense pressure of firing created "stress risers" at those points. This led to micro-fractures and, eventually, catastrophic barrel bursts.
Most likely they arrived with wooden carriages. In the context of the War of the Triple Alliance, "Mountain" (Gebirgs) hardware was often chosen not for altitude, but for mobility in extreme terrain.
Around 1865 batch:
10 - 75mm L/13 Mountain Gun (Gebirgskanone) C/64, double wedge (Kreiner system) breech.
Around 1870 batch:
11 - 75mm L/13 (Gebirgskanone) C/67, round-Back (Cylindro-Prismatic) Wedge breech.
The Artillery in the WWI Era.
The diverse artillery corps with different models and sizes are distributed in Liniers, Campo de Mayo, Diamante, Cordoba and Field General Belgrano in Salta, in addition to two autonomous groups of mountain artillery. 152 officers. 540 NCOs and auxiliaries. 2,470 soldiers. Among some 2,700 horses and mules heads. 112 loads of ammunition. Four spare carriages. eight charges of forging. four loads of sappers. twenty of baggage. twenty-four bastes. This number is for peacetime mobilization should multiply according to circumstances.
Howitzers: Around 1916 the howitzers composed a regiment based in Campo de Mayo. They were divided into three batteries commanded each by a Lieutenant Colonel who was under a Major and three captains at the rate of one battery of four pieces each. Each captain had eight junior officer positions, a surgeon and thirty-nine sNCOs, 270 soldiers, in addition to civilian personnel, veterinarians, pharmacists, administrators, etc. The cavalry consisted of 17 riding horses for officers, 47 for troops, and 185 for loads, 12 ammunition wagons, six of food and one of health. The howitzers were for siege and campaign (field gun). Those for siege at 150mm L14 M1911 had a range of 6,600 meters. Those for campaign at 105mm L16 M1898 also had a range of 3,700 m with average charge and 6,490 m with maximum charge.
Five Regiments of Mounted Artillery and two Groups of Mountain Artillery based in Salta and Mendoza. The Horse Artillery are 75mm L30 M1909 with maximun range of 6,600 mts.
The mountain cannons are 75mm Krupp L13 Model 1885 (C/80) with a range of 4000 meters, 1898 models are the same caliber and same maximum range.
The sections of mountain artillery, are led by two lieutenant colonels, two majors and four captains, with fourteen officers. Ninety NCOs and 500 soldiers. Twenty-six riding horses for officers. Three hundred thirty mules. 16 pieces of food with four wagons and six of fodder (animal feed).
Siege and Fortress pieces:
The 1902 models size 13cm L26 have a maximum range of 10,800 meters.
The 105mm M1884 L35 Fortress Gun has 9500 meters of range.
Five Regiments of Mounted Artillery and two Groups of Mountain Artillery based in Salta and Mendoza. The Horse Artillery are 75mm L30 M1909 with maximun range of 6,600 mts.
The mountain cannons are 75mm Krupp L13 Model 1885 (C/80) with a range of 4000 meters, 1898 models are the same caliber and same maximum range.
The sections of mountain artillery, are led by two lieutenant colonels, two majors and four captains, with fourteen officers. Ninety NCOs and 500 soldiers. Twenty-six riding horses for officers. Three hundred thirty mules. 16 pieces of food with four wagons and six of fodder (animal feed).
Siege and Fortress pieces:
The 1902 models size 13cm L26 have a maximum range of 10,800 meters.
The 105mm M1884 L35 Fortress Gun has 9500 meters of range.
|
Sonja Wetzig’s German Artillery 1864–1910 provides the hard technical evolution of the exact guns you’ve been tracking. For research on C/80 and the 7.7 cm FK 96 n.A. and the Krupp 7.5 cm export models, Wetzig is invaluable because she documents the transition from "Rigid" to "Quick-Firing" (Recoil) systems.
The Arms of Krupp 1587-1968 by William Manchester: Krupp's Guns 1857 - 1968 by William Manchester is a very extensive book, but it contains little technical information, rather it is focused on politics around the factory. The author was obsessed with the Krupp family’s influence on German nationalism and their "blood pact" with the Kaiser and later the Nazis. |
Krupp 105mm L35 Model 1880
Note: Argentina utilized Krupp artillery extensively in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, though the specific 105mm L/35 Model 1880 configuration is most notably recorded in their service as a fortress and coastal defense gun rather than a standard field piece.
Krupp 105mm built-up barrel and overbank carriage (or high-wheel carriage), which was a defining feature of many dedicated fortress guns of that era.
The Krupp 105mm L/35 Model 1880 was a breech-loading field or naval gun developed by the German firm Krupp in the late 19th century, used by various nations including the Ottoman Empire and Greece.
The Model 1880 was part of the Construction C/80 pattern of artillery developed by Krupp. It incorporated innovations such as rifling and a reliable breech-loading mechanism, marking a significant advancement over previous muzzle-loaded smoothbore cannons.
The Krupp 105mm L/35 Model 1880 was a breech-loading field or naval gun developed by the German firm Krupp in the late 19th century, used by various nations including the Ottoman Empire and Greece.
The Model 1880 was part of the Construction C/80 pattern of artillery developed by Krupp. It incorporated innovations such as rifling and a reliable breech-loading mechanism, marking a significant advancement over previous muzzle-loaded smoothbore cannons.
"The command of the mounted artillery are headed by five lieutenant colonels, 15 majors and 20 captains, with 65 junior officers, 95 assistants and 300 workers and 1700 NCOs places soldiers.
One hundred twenty five riding horses for officer. three hundred ten for Troops. two hundred twenty-five carriage horses.
The total of artillery and wagons eaches eighty pieces, with the same number of wagons and ammunition. Complemented by twenty wagons of observation. twenty of battery. twenty of forge, twenty-five with equipment. The food for these forces are transported in twenty wagons. The food for the animals in twenty wagons. The Medic Corps has five ambulance-wagons. Variable number of ammunition-wagons".
Source: Caras y Caretas Magazine, 1916.
One hundred twenty five riding horses for officer. three hundred ten for Troops. two hundred twenty-five carriage horses.
The total of artillery and wagons eaches eighty pieces, with the same number of wagons and ammunition. Complemented by twenty wagons of observation. twenty of battery. twenty of forge, twenty-five with equipment. The food for these forces are transported in twenty wagons. The food for the animals in twenty wagons. The Medic Corps has five ambulance-wagons. Variable number of ammunition-wagons".
Source: Caras y Caretas Magazine, 1916.
105mm L/16 M1898 Field Howitzer Krupp
The Krupp 105mm L/16 Model 1898 )German 1.5 cm L/16 sFH 98 (FeldHowitzer) was a heavy field/fortress howitzer used primarily by the Argentine Army during the early 20th century. While it shares the same model year as the 75mm Krupp field gun, its design was tailored for high-velocity, long-range fire rather than rapid maneuver.105mm.
Probably they also had thewas equipped with a Maxim-Nordenfelt interrupted screw breech rather than the standard Krupp sliding wedge. Some voices say that there was a 7.5 cm L/13 sGH GebirgsHaubitzer mountain howitzer, but it is not confirmed
M1898 Krupp Circa 1916. 1st Howitzer Regiment from Campo de Mayo.
Probably they also had thewas equipped with a Maxim-Nordenfelt interrupted screw breech rather than the standard Krupp sliding wedge. Some voices say that there was a 7.5 cm L/13 sGH GebirgsHaubitzer mountain howitzer, but it is not confirmed
M1898 Krupp Circa 1916. 1st Howitzer Regiment from Campo de Mayo.
105mm M1898.These models were made in Europe under the supervision of Argentine technicians. Many models came customized by the request of the Commission which explains some differences between European and Argentine versions.
105mm M1898. Caras y Caretas 1916.
Krupp 105mm L16 M1998 Howitzer. Note the pedestal sight with a telescope.
(Transition from "Rigid: Carriages to Those with Recoil Absorption Systems)
Pre-1902 (Rigid Models): Earlier Krupp mountain guns, such as the 75mm L/13 M1885 and the M1895 (used by Spain in Cuba), had no internal recoil mechanism. When fired, the entire carriage would jump backward, requiring the crew to physically wheel the gun back into position and re-aim for every shot.
Post-1902 (Elastic/Recoil Models): Starting with designs like the Model 1902/1903 and the GebirgsKanone 06, Krupp introduced a hydro-spring recoil mechanism. This allowed the barrel to slide back along a cradle while the carriage remained stationary, vastly increasing the rate of fire and accuracy.
Post-1902 (Elastic/Recoil Models): Starting with designs like the Model 1902/1903 and the GebirgsKanone 06, Krupp introduced a hydro-spring recoil mechanism. This allowed the barrel to slide back along a cradle while the carriage remained stationary, vastly increasing the rate of fire and accuracy.
